China and Japan 1912-1945 Study Notes

Chapter 4: China and Japan 1912–1945

Timeline of Key Events

• Oct 1911: Revolution in China (Xinhai Revolution).
• Jan 1912: Abdication of the last Chinese Emperor (Pu Yi).
• Aug 1912: Establishment of the Kuomintang (KMT).
• Jul 1914–18: The First World War.
• Jan 1915: Japan issues China with the Twenty-One Demands.
• May 1919: Beginning of the May Fourth Movement in China.
• Jul 1921: Formation of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
• 1921–22: Washington Naval Conference.
• Mar 1925: Death of Sun Yat-sen.
• Jul 1926: Chiang Kai-shek begins the Northern March (Northern Expedition).
• Mar 1927: Beginning of the Kuomintang’s Purification Movement (Canton Purge/Purge of Communists).
• Dec 1928: Kuomintang forces take control of Peking (Beijing).
• Sep 1931: Japanese invasion of Manchuria.
• Nov 1931: Mao Tse-tung elected Chairman of the Soviet Republic of China.
• Feb 1933: Japan withdraws from the League of Nations.
• Oct 1934: The Long March sets out in China.
• Nov 1936: Japan signs the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany.
• 1937–45: Sino-Japanese War.
• Jun 1941: German invasion of the USSR.
• Nov 1941: Japan breaks off diplomatic relations with the USA.
• Dec 1941: Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor; Japan declares war against the USA and Britain.

Learning Objectives and Introductory Themes

Core Objectives

1. Understand the reasons for the growth of Chinese nationalism between $1912$ and $1945$.
2. Understand the reasons for and implications of the increasing popularity of the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party ($1912\text{--}1927$).
3. Learn about the reasons for, and implications of, the increasing rivalry between the KMT and the CCP ($1927\text{--}1945$).
4. Assess the failure of democracy in Japan and its implications for internal, Chinese, and international relations.

The State of China in 1912

China’s collapse began in the mid-$19^{th}$ century due to external challenges from the West and internal large-scale rebellions. By $1912$, the last emperor was forced to abdicate, ending thousands of years of imperial rule. The newly proclaimed republic was unable to maintain unity, leading to disintegration into provinces controlled by warlords with private armies.

Japan’s Strategic Position

For Japan, China’s instability created a power vacuum in East Asia, presenting both a danger and an opportunity:

• Danger: Western powers (USA and European nations) might exploit China's weakness to enhance their own regional influence, threatening Japanese security.
• Opportunity: Japan could establish itself as the supreme power in East Asia.
• Historical Precedents: Japan had already engaged in the First Sino-Japanese War ($1894\text{--}95$) and the Russo-Japanese War ($1904\text{--}05$). It sought conquest in Taiwan ($1894$), South Manchuria ($1905$), and Korea ($1910$). International prestige was boosted by the Anglo-Japanese Treaty in $1902$.

Key Terminology and Definitions

• Republic: A state in which political power is held by representatives of the people rather than a monarch.
• Warlords: Regional chieftains who led private armies and competed with each other for control over territory.
• Dynasty: A line of hereditary rulers of a country. (Note: The Manchu dynasty is also known as the Ch’ing or Qing dynasty, which ruled China from $1644$ to $1912$).
• Purge: In a political context, to remove (often by violence) people who are considered to be an undesirable influence.
• Beiyang Army: The imperial Chinese army established by the Manchu Dynasty in the $19^{th}$ century.
• Kuomintang (KMT): The Chinese Nationalist Party (also spelled Guomindang).
• Military Dictator: Someone whose control over a country’s affairs is made possible by the total support of the armed forces.
• Peasants: Agricultural labourers and (usually small-scale) farmers.
• Manifesto: A written statement of the beliefs, aims, and policies of a group or person.
• Mercenary: A soldier who joins an army purely for money rather than for a cause or to defend their country.

Transliteration Systems

Names of Chinese people and places have been transliterated using different systems:

• Wade-Giles (Traditional): Generally used until the $1950s$. Examples: Kuomintang, Chiang Kai-shek, Mao Tse-tung, Yenan, Peking.
• Pinyin: The modern system. Examples: Guomindang, Jiang Jieshi, Mao Zedong, Yan’an, Beijing.

Issues Facing China (Late 19th Century to 1916)

Erosion of Authority

The power of the Manchu dynasty was eroded by Western powers seeking trade. Defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War ($1894\text{--}95$) highlighted national weakness. During the Russo-Japanese War ($1904\text{--}05$), foreign nations fought on Chinese soil (Manchuria) while the Chinese government remained powerless to intervene.

Internal Rebellion and Reform Resistance

• Empress Tzu-Hsi (Cixi Taihou): Steadfastly opposed to reform. She purged modernizers from her government and used warlords/foreign powers to suppress internal rebellions.
• Boxer Rebellion ($1898\text{--}1901$): Nationalist uprising against foreign influence. Initially opposed by the Manchu government, they eventually supported it and declared war on foreign powers. An eight-nation alliance (Britain, Russia, Japan, France, USA, Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary) crushed the rebellion, resulting in looting and a massive compensation bill (indemnity) for China.

Westernization and Modernization

• Education: Western-style education replaced traditional systems; the Confucian-based examination system was abolished in $1905$.
• Industrialization: Development of coal mines, iron foundries, cotton factories, roads, and railways.
• Political Shift: Educated Chinese argued that modernization required a change in the political system to defend against foreign interference.

The Rise of Republicanism and Sun Yat-sen

Sun Yat-sen ($1866\text{--}1925$)

An educated doctor (trained abroad) who became a professional revolutionary. He founded the Revive China Society ($1894$) and later the Tongmenhui ($1905$), aiming to overthrow the Manchu and establish a republic. He spent much time in exile raising funds for the Save China League.

The Xinhai Revolution ($1911$)

• Trigger: Soldiers in Wuchang rebelled, incensed by the government's continued payments to foreigners for the Boxer Rebellion.
• Spread: Most provinces declared independence from Peking.
• Outcome: The Manchu asked Yuan Shih-kai to return from retirement to be Prime Minister; he took control of the Beiyang army.

Founding the Republic

In January $1912$, Sun Yat-sen announced the Republic of China in Nanking. However, the treasury was empty, the provinces were divided, and the north remained under Yuan Shih-kai's control. To avoid civil war, Sun negotiated a deal: Yuan would arrange the Emperor’s abdication, and in return, Yuan would become President. Pu Yi abdicated in $1912$, ending $2,500$ years of monarchy.

Yuan Shih-kai’s Rule and the Warlord Era

Yuan Shih-kai ($1859\text{--}1916$)

A military general with no interest in democratic reform. In $1913$, following KMT electoral successes, he allegedly ordered the assassination of KMT chairman Sung Chiao-jen. He banned the KMT and declared himself a military dictator, dismissing parliament in $1914$.

The Failure of the Restoration

• Twenty-One Demands ($1915$): Yuan accepted Japanese demands, appearing weak.
• Imperial Ambition: In December $1915$, he proclaimed himself Emperor. This led to a loss of army support and independence declarations from provinces including Yunnan, Kweichow, Kwangsi, Kwangtung, Chekiang, Shensi, Szechuan, and Honan. He resigned after $83$ days and died in $1916$.

Chaos of the Warlord Era ($1916\text{--}1928$)

• Army Size Growth: Total warlord soldiers rose from $500,000$ ($1916$) to over $1,000,000$ ($1918$) and reached $2,000,000$ by $1928$.
• Impact on Peasants: High taxes, looting, and forced conscription. Unemployment reached $168,000,000$ by $1925$.
• Notable Exception: Yan Xishan (Yen His-shan) of Shanxi Province introduced reforms, including education for girls.

The May Fourth Movement ($1919$)

Origins: The New Culture Movement ($1915$)

Intellectuals argued traditional Chinese values (Confucianism) caused weakness. They advocated for Western concepts: democracy, individual liberty, and science.

The Paris Peace Conference Incident

Despite fighting with the Allies in WWI, China’s claim to Shantung Province (occupied by Germany) was ignored. The territory was awarded to Japan. On May $4$, $1919$, $5,000$ students in Peking demonstrated under nationalist slogans ("do away with the Twenty-One Demands").

Impact and Legacy

• Protests: A week-long general strike by $100,000$ workers in Shanghai in June occurred in support of students.
• Intellectual Revolution: Promoted modern social and cultural ideas, helped spread literacy by changing the written language, and empowered the working class. It is considered the birthplace of the CCP and a revitalizing force for the KMT.

Growth of the KMT and the CCP

The CCP and Soviet Influence

Founded in $1921$ by intellectuals like Chen Duxiu, its first meeting had fewer than $20$ people. The Soviet-sponsored Comintern saw an opportunity to spread communism in Asia.

The First United Front ($1923$)

Advised by Adolf Joffe, Sun Yat-sen agreed to work with the CCP to gain Soviet financial and organizational aid. Russian advisors helped build the Whampoa Military Academy, headed by Chiang Kai-shek.

Sun Yat-sen’s Three Principles of the People

1. Nationalism: A unified, strong China free from foreign interference.
2. Democracy: A system where people elect leaders; transition required mass education.
3. Social and Economic Reform: Ending the class system, improved peasant conditions, and agricultural efficiency (land redistribution was supported, but not total confiscation).

The Northern Expedition ($1926\text{--}1928$)

Transition to Chiang Kai-shek

Following Sun’s death in $1925$, Chiang emerged as leader. On March $20$, $1926$, he conducted the Canton Purge, removing communists from key KMT and NRA (National Revolutionary Army) positions.

Military Advancement

Launched in July $1926$, the expedition aimed to reunify China. By the end of $1926$, the NRA had defeated two warlord armies and controlled land south of the Yangtze River.

Reasons for Success

1. Preparation: Four years of detailed planning and training at Whampoa.
2. Equipment: Modern weapons from the USSR, Germany, and Japan.
3. Soviet Aid: Despite Chiang’s anti-communism, Stalin provided military advisers to ensure a unified China friendly to the USSR.
4. Warlord Weakness: Warlord armies were disorganized, poorly equipped, and relied on mercenaries.
5. Popular Support: Ordinary people were tired of warlord violence and joined/supported the KMT.

Internal Rivalry and External Threats

• Internal Split ($1927$): KMT split into two governments: one in Wuhan (led by Wang Ching-wei, willing to work with CCP) and one in Nanchang (led by Chiang Kai-shek).
• The Jinan Incident (May 1928): Proximity to Shantung led to a clash with the Imperial Japanese Army, killing thousands of KMT soldiers and Chinese civilians.
• Victory ($1928$): Peking fell to the KMT; the Nationalist Government was recognized internationally, moving the capital to Nanking.

Persistent Problems

• Authority was mostly restricted to southern and central China; northern warlords remained active.
• Central Plains War ($1930$): A six-month conflict where Chiang defeated rival KMT members and warlords who established a government in Peking.

Questions & Discussion

Before You Start (Reflective Analysis)

• Evidence for 19th-century government failure: The inability to stop the Russo-Japanese War being fought on its territory and the forced acceptance of foreign spheres of influence.
• Developing Nationalism: The Boxer Rebellion was a clear indicator of developing nationalism, albeit violent and initially uncoordinated with the state.
• Foreign Collaboration: The eight-nation alliance during the Boxer Rebellion showed foreign nations would cooperate to exploit China.
• Biggest Threat by 1912: Japan is often cited as the biggest threat due to its proximity and stated goals of territorial expansion in Manchuria and Korea.

Activity 4.1: Comparison of Views

• Sun Yat-sen: Pro-reform, Western democratic influence, intellectual philosopher.
• Yuan Shih-kai: Anti-reform, traditionalist, military dictator.
• Analysis: Yuan's failure to hold power suggests that modern China could no longer be governed by a traditional monarchical system and required a new form of legitimacy that he lacked after accepting the Twenty-One Demands and attempting to declare himself emperor.

Activity 4.5: Analysis of Success

• Soviet Support Thesis: While the USSR provided training (Moscow and Whampoa) and supplies, other factors like the exhaustion of the peasantry under warlords and the fragmentation of warlord leadership were equally vital to the Northern Expedition’s success.

Activity 4.2: Future Vision (May Fourth Goals)