ap euro unit 7
AP EUROPEAN HISTORY - UNIT 7: 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments
Impact of French Revolution
Nationalism:
Definition: "being part of a community that includes a common language, traditions, and costumes."
Congress of Vienna and Its Principles
Principles:
Principle of Legitimacy: Only legitimate rulers should rule.
Balance of Power: No single state should dominate the continent.
Impact of the Congress of Vienna:
Year: 1814
Formation of Quadruple Alliance: Included Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
Key Leader: Prince Klemens von Metternich
Established Polish Kingdom: Under the Romanov dynasty.
Restoration of Bourbon Family:
Beginning with the King of England, restored to the thrones of France and Spain.
Prussia and Italian States: Received lands back to their rulers.
Austria's Role: Gained control of Italian states, such as Lombardy.
Concert of Europe:
Purpose: To prevent revolutionary attempts.
Meetings: Met periodically (four meetings):
Aix-la-Chapelle (1818): Added France to the Concert of Europe and withdrew military occupation from France.
Troppau (1820): Addressed revolts in Italy and Spain, restored Bourbon Ferdinand I as king of Naples and Sicily.
Principle of Intervention: Great powers had the right to send arms to countries experiencing revolutions (Great Britain refused to participate).
Laibach (1821): Only Austria, Prussia, and Russia attended; sent armed forces to Naples to suppress rebellion and restore Ferdinand I.
Verona (1822): France invaded Spain to restore Ferdinand VIII.
Nationalist Movements: Failures of Conservatism
Greek Revolution:
1827: Great Britain and France sent fleets to defeat the Ottomans.
1829: Treaty of Adrianople concluded, leading to Greek independence by 1830.
Latin America:
Gradual liberation of territories such as Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, and Colombia.
Causes for Conservative Failures in Spain:
Power vacuum.
Enlightenment ideas.
Hierarchical systems.
Century of oppression.
Success of Conservatism
Great Britain:
Dominated by landowning classes in both houses of Parliament.
Monarchy's power was weak.
Political Parties:
Tories dominated the government; Whigs were the first to gain support from the economic class.
Corn Laws: Imposed high tariffs on foreign grain to protect British agriculture.
Peterloo Massacre: 11 protesters killed during a mass protest.
France:
Restoration (1814): Bourbon family reinstated under Louis XVIII.
Accepted Napoleon's Civil Code and established a bicameral legislature comprising:
Chamber of Peers: Appointed by the king.
Chamber of Deputies: Elected by the electorate.
Ultra Royalists: Criticized the king’s willingness to compromise, returning the church to a more powerful position.
Charles X Era:
Granted indemnity to aristocrats.
Aimed to reestablish church control over education.
Had to accept Ministerial Responsibility, where ministers were accountable to the legislature, not the king.
Violated commitments in 1829, leading to revolts among deputies.
Italian States:
Congress of Vienna established nine states in Italy, mainly dominated by Austrian powers.
Nationalist Societies: Planned revolts, such as the Carbonari group.
Spain:
Reinstated Bourbon monarchy under Ferdinand VII.
Initially promised to review the liberal constitution of 1812 but eventually dissolved the Cortes and persecuted its members.
Revolutions led to his capture and promise to restore the Cortes; Metternich's intervention saved Ferdinand by sending in the French army.
Germany:
The Vienna settlement recognized 38 sovereign states; Prussia and Austria were dominant.
Liberal Principles: Largely favored by Germans.
Formation of Burschenschaften: Student societies that sought a free and united Germany:
Used radical protest methods such as book burning and assassination.
Prompted Metternich to create the Carlsbad Decrees (1819) to suppress these movements.
Austrian Empire:
Held together by the imperial civil service, the dynasty, and the Catholic Church.
Multinational Realm: Under the Habsburg Emperor.
Economic Status: German regions more advanced; opposition from Hungarians against the monarchy fueled tensions.
Russia: Alexander I’s Era:
Relaxed censorship and freed political prisoners.
Educational system reforms but did not abolish serfdom.
Russia functioned as an autocracy, dominated by one ruler.
Post-Napoleonic War, gained considerable Polish territory at the Congress of Vienna.
Intelligentsia discontent grew among educated elites due to contrasting policies abroad and domestic restrictions.
Became increasingly religious and proposed the Holy Alliance among Christian kingdoms.
Decembrist Revolt:
Involved upper nobility and soldiers against serfdom and aristocratic privilege, triggered by allegiance conflicts after Grand Duke Constantine was crowned secretly.
Nicholas I's response was severe, deploying military force against civilians.
Nicholas I’s Rule:
Centralized power with extreme control; aristocracy firmly under his authority.
Acknowledged the need for industrialization, established secret police to maintain order, and neglected administration.
Philosophical Movements
Conservatism
Definition:
"The state is a partnership between the dead, the living, and the unborn."
Emphasizes gradual change, favoring absolute monarchy.
Edmund Burke: Influential conservative thinker.
Nationalism
Definition:
Being part of a community that emerged post-French Revolution, disrupting political stability.
Nationalists and liberals often allied for shared goals.
Socialism
Early Socialism:
Emphasizes societal needs over individual needs; advocates for social equality without competition, promoting cooperation.
Utopian Socialism:
Opposes private property and competition.
Charles Fourier:
Proposed Phalansteries: Cooperative communities for mutual benefit, but untested due to financial backing issues.
Robert Owen: Believed humans could reveal inherent goodness through social reforms.
Louis Blanc: Advocated for government intervention to solve social problems.
Flora Tristan: Promoted women's liberation across France.
Liberalism
Economic Liberalism:
Influenced by Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo.
Promotes laissez-faire: minimal government intervention in economics leads to greater benefits for society.
Political Liberalism:
Advocates for civil liberties (equality before the law, freedom of assembly, speech, and press).
Supports separation of church and state and peaceful opposition to government.
Pushes for ministerial responsibility and limited suffrage, excluding women from holding office.
John Stuart Mill: Supported women's rights in political spheres.
Impact of the Congress of Vienna
Overlooked liberal aspirations and the influence of nationalism across Europe.
Underestimated the enduring effects of the French Revolution on the legitimacy of monarchies.
Another French Revolution (1830)
July Ordinances: Issued by Charles X, enforcing strict censorship and diminishing electoral participation.
Results of the July Revolution:
Charles X fled to Britain, leading to the rise of constitutional monarch Louis Philippe (the "bourgeoisie monarch").
Established constitutional monarchy favoring the middle class while neglecting working class needs.
Increased industrial growth generated tension between classes.
Revolutionary Outbursts: Belgium, Poland, and Italy
Belgium: Successfully revolted for independence supported by Great Britain and France after being united with Holland at the Congress of Vienna.
Poland: Attempted to revolt against Russian control but failed; resultant military dictatorship established by Russia.
Italy: Revolts faced harsh suppression by Austrian forces, preventing unification efforts.
Reform in Britain
1830: Whigs gained control; reform efforts initiated.
1832: Election Reform Bill led to the Reform Act that expanded voting rights to the upper middle class but excluded lower-class citizens.
1846: Anti-Corn Law League emerged to reduce bread prices for laborers.
Revolution of 1848 in France
Economic strife fueled social unrest; Louis Philippe’s administration resisted reforms.
Resulted in Philippe fleeing Britain; Provisional government formed by moderates and radicals.
National Assembly Composition:
500 total seats, split between moderates and radical Republicans.
National workshops established but later closed due to rising unemployment.
Adopted a new constitution on November 4, 1848, creating a unicameral legislative house.
German States in the 1848 Revolutions
Frankfurt Assembly: Convened under King Ferdinand William IV, comprising educated delegates debating German unification.
Grossdeutsch vs. Kleindeutsch: Division over inclusion of Austria in the new Germany.
Although Austria withdrew, the assembly failed to establish a unified state.
Austrian Empire Revolts (1848)
Hungarian Legislation: Achieved independence by aligning with the Habsburg dynasty.
Czech Demands: Proposals for self-governance in Bohemia met repression.
General Alfred’s response was military suppression, leading to Russian intervention which ultimately crushed revolt attempts.
Attempts to Unify Italy
Giuseppe Mazzini's Young Italy Movement: Advocated for Italian unification.
Cristina Belgioioso: Promoted the cause through journalism abroad.
Lombardy and Venetia Revolts: Attempts to secede from Austrian rule failed; by 1849, Austria regained control.
Romanticism in Art and Literature
Core Themes:
Affection for nature, individualism, the heroic, and emotional expression; revival of Gothic architectural styles.
Notable Writers:
Edgar Allan Poe, Mary Shelley ("Frankenstein"): Explored human emotion and the consequences of scientific endeavor.
Poets like Percy Shelley (