Study Notes on Descartes’ Passions of the Soul

Journal of Affective Disorders Special Article

Descartes’ Passions of the Soul—Seeds of Psychiatry?

Authors
  • Joy Albuquerque, Dorian Deshauer, Paul Grof
    • Mood Disorders Research Unit, Royal Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
    • Royal Ottawa Hospital, University of Ottawa, 1145 Carling Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1Z 7K4
Article Details
  • Received: 27 March 2001
  • Accepted: 5 February 2002
  • Keywords: Descartes, Passions, Depression, History

Abstract

Rene Descartes (1596–1650) is often referred to as the "father of modern philosophy." His aim was to root all knowledge in certainty to allow our understanding of the world to progress without error. This pursuit began with the most basic knowledge: his own existence, encapsulated in the phrase "Cogito ergo sum" (I think therefore I am). From this foundation, Descartes systematically sought to explain the world, a method that could be applied by anyone to achieve a good life.

In his work Passions of the Soul, Descartes employs this method of certainty to provide a meticulously refined worldview and one of the first systematic treatises on emotions, addressing both normal and abnormal states. Descartes’ model is rooted in a Cartesian dualism—the separation of mind and body. He posited that emotions stem from two sources: the intellect and the body, identifying the "Passions of the Soul" as more subtle and superior to coarser bodily emotions. However, there is ambiguity in Descartes' distinction between intellectual and bodily emotions, calling into question the durability of his dualistic model. This work interacts with the multi-causal nature of psychopathology and outlines the intricate dynamics between temperament and life experiences.

Modern Relevance

In light of advancements in neuroscience linking physiology and experience, the foundational issues that Descartes explored over 350 years ago are still pertinent to contemporary psychiatric discourse.

  • Quote: "Even those who have the weakest souls could acquire absolute mastery over all their passions if we employed sufficient ingenuity in training and guiding them." (Passions A50, 348)
Introduction

The significance of reviewing Descartes’ ideas lies in the current technological and psychiatric landscape where the relationship between cognition, mood, the mind, and the body is evolving. The division of these elements is drawn from a longstanding tradition of dualism tracing back to Descartes. The Passions of the Soul symbolizes a part of a complex model meticulously crafted to maintain consistency across medicine, physics, and mathematics. While Descartes envisioned a substantive union between mind and body, his commitment to dualism led to perplexing concepts such as "intellectual emotions."

  • The general division of the universe noted by Descartes includes:
    • Extension: Referring to physical and measurable entities.
    • Thought: Incorporeal and eternal aspects, part of a dualistic framework.

His framework included an approach to both illness and health through the lens of psychology and physiology that continues to be discussed in psychiatry today.

Descartes’ Explanation of Moods

Context of Emotions

Descartes wrote The Passions of the Soul in 1646, prompted by Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia, focusing on a systematic explanation and categorization of human emotions (passions). It marks one of the earliest serious explorations aimed at understanding normal and pathological affective states.

His philosophy is grounded in the notion that certain interactions between human reason and emotions must be understood to effectively manage human behavior. Cogito ergo sum reflects that awareness of one's existence is fundamental to all understanding, drawing a substantial connection between human cognition, behavior, and emotional states.

Types of Passions

Descartes distinguishes between "passions" and "passions of the soul."

  • Passions refer to general perceptual experiences, which encompass*:
    • Bodily perceptions: Those emerging from physical sensations like hunger, pain, or external stimuli.
    • However, the "passions of the soul" derive from less clear origins, serving as indicators of deeper emotional states without a proximate cause. Descartes identified six primitive passions from which all others arise:
    • Wonder
    • Love
    • Hatred
    • Desire
    • Joy
    • Sadness (Passions A69, 353)
Physiological Responses

Descartes systematically outlines physiological reactions to emotions, including:

  • Sadness: Driven by a sense of deficiency or insult impacting overall vitality.

  • **Responses to sadness: **

    • The heart slows, circulation diminishes, causing symptoms like coldness in the body, felt like having ice within.
    • Animal spirits, described as mobilizing blood from the spleen, are involved in response mechanisms, illustrating how bodily conditions can lead to distinct emotional states (Passions A110, 367).

  • Sighing could indicate sadness but also occur under other conditions like fullness of the stomach or tight clothing.

  • The spectrum of responses, from tears to sighs, illustrates the complexity of emotional expressions and their physiological underpinnings, and how these vary among individuals (Passions A139, 376).

Emotional Interactions and Complexity

Descartes challenges the assumption of straightforward links between emotions and physiological indicators:

  • A passion recognized as "x" may lead to physiological responses without the subject's awareness of the cause.
  • Individual experiences can amplify or diminish emotional responses differently due to unique personal histories.
  • Example: Fear: Descartes notes that the perception of an approaching threat can trigger memories and resultant fear, implicating the interaction of body and mind.
Cartesian Remedies

Descartes proposed a dual approach to dealing with passions involving:

  • Individual minds: Focused on cognitive-behavioral strategies directed at managing thoughts and reasoning to achieve emotional stability.
  • Bodily therapies: Included rest, bloodletting, dietary adjustments, reflecting the contemporary medical practices of the 17th century.

He posited that a well-ordered soul pursuing virtue was essential for emotional resilience and well-being:

  • A healthy soul could withstand intense bodily passions, preserving tranquility.

Conclusion

Descartes’ Passions of the Soul manifests enduring methodological challenges to our understanding of emotional phenomena, asserting a continued relevance in deciphering the intricate dynamics between cognition and emotion. Despite dualistic beliefs, experiences indicate a necessary integration of emotional understanding with physiological responses, pointing toward an ongoing tension within the psyche.

Acknowledgements
  • The authors express gratitude to Professor Graeme Hunter of the University of Ottawa, Department of Philosophy, for his contribution to the manuscript.