Henry VIII, 1509-1547
The Character and Aims of Henry VIII
The Character of Henry VIII
he had not grown up to be king, but in the seven years since his brother’s death, he had been well educated for this role
was well read and had been introduced to humanist ideas
was charming and agreeable → produced a positive first impression
the way he succeeded shows his astuteness and ruthlessness
kept the death of his father concealed for two days whilst him and some of the old councillors secured his position
Richard Fox, Thomas Lovell and Richard Weston established themselves in power
arranged the imprisonment of Dudley + Empson on the first day of the new reign → popular move, symbolised an end to the old ways of ruling
break from his father’s austere, money-focused rule + an attempt to win public favour
Differences to his Father
lacked a strong work ethic → preferred courtly activities e.g. pageants, revelry, sports, hunting and tournaments
had little interest in the daily business of government → however, he could act decisively when he chose to
relied heavily on others → members of his Council and chief ministers e.g. Wolsey + Cromwell
Character Traits
ruthlessness and cynicism
execution of Empson and Dudley
insecurity
willingness to resort to execution for treason, often on flimsy excuses → Thomas More, refused to acknowledge Henry as Supreme Head of the Church; showing Henry couldn’t handle passive resistance
impulsiveness
speed in marrying Catherine of Aragon (11th June, 1509 → he had been crowned on 23rd April, 1509) and marriages to Anne of Cleves and Catherine Howard; execution of Thomas Cromwell
later on regretted all of these
Henry believed in his divine right to rule, conforming to the practices of the Catholic Church
The Legacy of Henry VII
money → Henry VIII had inherited a full Crown coffer of around £300,000
however, the method of raising money was deeply unpopular
peaceful kingdom → nobility had been checked + Tudor dynasty secured
foreign policy → largely peaceful
government → decisions were made through a council, helping to provide stability
Aims of Henry VIII’s Government
establish his status amongst European monarchs through marriage
married Catherine of Aragon on 11th June, 1509
he was supported by councillors who thought this would distract him from political matters, so they could continue conciliar business
Catherine exercised some influence over policy making in the first few years of their marriage
e.g. 1513 during the invasion of France, she was made Regent and helped oversee the English response to the Battle of Flodden, playing a central role in their victory
by the mid 1520s Henry regretted marrying her as they had not yet had a son
re-establish the role of the nobility
under Henry VII, the nobility had been largely frozen out of direct political influence, and his peaceful foreign policy had denied them the pursuit of military glory
Henry VIII shared the tastes and dominant military culture of the aristocracy, so wanted this to change
establish himself as a warrior king through success in battle
sought military glory → leading to war in France
vast amounts of money spent just to reap little to no reward → painfully small gains with no strategic significance
Henry VIII, Government and Parliament
Government under Henry VIII
1509-1514 → government by the council
conciliar government had broken down by 1514 → due to disagreements between Henry and his councillors
war with France
Henry surrounding himself with younger courtiers
1514-1529 → Wolsey as chief minister
Henry relied on Wolsey to manage government effectively
Wolsey’s influence was derived from his close relationship with the King as opposed to formal positions
1529-1532 → conciliar government restored
as a result of Wolsey’s downfall
1532-1540 → Cromwell as chief minister
Cromwell rose to power as chief minister, dominating royal government
1540-1547 → conciliar government restored in a new form
Cromwell’s fall led to the emergence of a new Privy Council with fixed membership and recorded proceedings
here, the power lay with the conservatives
parliament → grew in importance, particularly from 1529 due to the ‘Reformation Parliament’ dealing with the divorce and the reformation of the Church
was also used to grand extraordinary revenue for Henry’s financing of wars
privy chamber → role was extended in the early years of his reign when his ‘minions’ became Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber
Domestic Policies under Wolsey (1515-1529) → domestic policy focused on strengthening royal authority + raising finance to support Henry’s wars with France and Scotland
Wolsey Timeline
1513 → Wolsey impressed Henry with his organisational skills in the French campaign in the Battle of Spurs
1514 → became the Archbishop of York
1515 → became a cardinal and the Lord Chancellor
Lord Chancellor → meant he was in control of the Royal Government and all other courtiers had to go through him to speak to the king
1518 → became a papal legate (Pope’s personal representative)
1519 → secured the removal of the minions, replacing them with his own supporters
the minions hadn’t trusted Wolsey, however they did manage to regain their positions
1522 → national survey to assess who could pay tax and how much
used this to fain £200,000 in forced loans
Wolsey Responsibilities
Enforcement of Law and Order
resided over the court of chancery → used to uphold fair justice in problems relating to enclosure of open fields for sheep farming, contracts, and land left to others in wills
1516 → extended the use of the Star Chamber
had been an offshoot of the King’s Council → so was the centre of both government and the legal system
used to increase cheap and fair justice
heard cases of alleged misconduct and private lawsuits
Wolsey encouraged the poor to use this, and so it went from hearing 12 cases per year to 120 cases per year → he had to create a new court called the Court of Requests
local law officers were appointed to enforce royal law
authority of the Crown over regional councils was extended
Overseeing the Raising of Finance
set up a network of royal commissioners to assess taxpayers’ wealth for the raising of subsidies (parliamentary taxation)
these commissioners were appointed by himself
Wolsey raised £322,000 in subsidies, £240,000 in clerical taxation, as well as £260,000 in forced loans
Expenditure was £1.7million, however
1525 → amount of extraordinary revenue was still insufficient to finance Henry’s war in France, so he tried to raise the Amicable Grant
was a voluntary gift to the king from his subjects → was really a heavy tax, levied without parliament’s approval
led to widespread resistance and had to be abandoned → around 100,000 people gathered in Lavenham to protest the tax
1526 → introduced the Eltham Ordinances
aimed to reduce royal household expenditure by reforming the Privy’ chamber’s finances
through this, Wolsey also succeeded in reducing the influence of the Privy chamber
The Establishment of Royal Supremacy
The ‘King’s Great Matter’
Henry VIII wanted to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon → could only be granted by Pope Clement VII
Henry had no male heir, and only one surviving daughter
Henry was also in love with Anne Boleyn
Timeline
1525 → the French questioned Mary’s legitimacy because of the papal dispensation Henry had obtained to marry Catherine
Henry asked Wolsey to secure a papal dispensation for the annulment of his marriage to Catherine
argued that his marriage to his brother’s widow had been illegal in the sight of God
1527 → Wolsey (papal legate) called a special court to try Henry for living in sin with his wife
Catherine appealed to Pope Clement VII
the Pope was reluctant to cooperate with Henry as he was being held prisoner by Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain) who was Catherine’s nephew and opposed the annulment
followed by two years of fruitless diplomacy → Pope deliberately procrastinated
1528 → Pope sent an envoy, Cardinal Campeggio, to hear the case along with Wolsey in a legatine court
hearing opened in June, but was adjourned by Campeggio in July without agreeing to an annulment
October, 1529 → Wolsey was charged with praemunire (using papal authority against the Crown) and retired to Yorkshire having surrendered his possessions to the King
1530 → In November Wolsey was arrested, but died before he could be tried and executed
Henry used scholars such as Thomas Cranmer to put forward the theological case for annulment
Cranmer was rewarded with the Archbishopric of Canterbury in 1532
1531 → English clergy collectively accused of praemunire and ordered to pay a £100,000 fine (Canterbury) and a £19,000 (York)
clergy agreed to this as they had been weakened by Wolsey’s fall, but added a clause saying they only had to obey Henry ‘so far as the law of Christ allows’
thus, this only undermined clerical resistance, a opposed to helping with the divorce
1532 → Cromwell emerged as the king’s chief minister
passed a series of measures and laws through Parliament to release the king from papal control
Act in the Conditional Restraint of Annates → limited payments to Rome to 5% of the net revenue of any church + specified that England would ignore any future punishments imposed by Rome
the Supplication against the Ordinaries, accusing the bishops of over-stating their power
gave Henry control of Canon (church) law, however the bishops were hostile to the idea of divorce → his power was still meaningless
Cromwell organised the surrender of the Church’s law-making function to the king → Submission of the Clergy
1533 → January: Anne was pregnant
Cranmer conducted a secret marriage ceremony
May → Cranmer annulled Henry’s previous marriage, allowing Anne to be crowned queen
7th September → Elizabeth was born
Act’s of Parliament (1533-1541)
April, 1533 → Act in Restraint of Appeals
no appeals could be made to Rome against decisions of Church courts in England
Significance
Catherine could not appeal to Rome against her marriage annulment
April, 1534 → Act of Succession
annulled Henry’s marriage to Catherine and vested the succession in Anne’s children
to deny Henry’s new marriage became a treasonable offence
Significance
Princess Mary became illegitimate
the hopes for a male heir rested with Anne
November, 1534 → Act of Supremacy
the King was declared the Supreme Head of the Church in England
Significance
the Pope’s authority was no longer recognised in England → triggered the ‘break from Rome’
November, 1534 → Treason Act
became a treasonable offence to call Henry a heretic
Significance
used against opponents of royal supremacy
e.g. brought down Thomas More, who had been a scholar, courtier and Lord Chancellor between 1530-1532
was executed in 1535
November, 1534 → Act in Restraint of Annates
allowed the annates (which had been withheld from the papacy by the 1532 Act) to be transferred from Pope to King
Significance
strengthened the king’s position → he earned more money
a special court was set up to administer this
1536 and 1541 → First and Second Suppression Acts
dissolved the monasteries
Significance
confiscation of Church land to the Crown vastly increased the wealth and power of the Crown
Domestic Policies under Cromwell (1532-1540) → huge push toward Protestantism
Cromwell was a lawyer who had gained Henry’s attention whilst working under Wolsey
he engineered the break with Rome
Cromwell’s policies revolutionised government
he achieved royal supremacy through Acts of Parliament, thus enhancing its status
gave parliamentary law precedence over Church law
Cromwell developed a more modern form of government, replacing the personal approach of earlier kings
created departments controlled by rules and procedures
Court of Augmentations + the Court of First Fruits and Tenths → had been established to look after Henry’s income from the Church, were subject to scrutiny and the auditing of all accounts
he changed the composition of the Privy Council
was reduced to 20 men who took responsibility for the business of government
increased efficiency → higher value placed on talent
negotiated further marriages for Henry
he made the case for Anne’s adultery, leading to her execution in May, 1536
Cromwell’s fall followed the failure of Henry’s fourth marriage to Anne of Cleves
he had arranged the marriage to suit his foreign policy
he was tried for treason and heresy, before being executed in 1July, 1540
the same day Henry married Catherine Howard
Government in Henry VIII’s Last Years (1540-1547)
revived system of conciliar government → his final years were dominated by conservatives
they wanted to halt further religious change (Stephen Gardiner and Thomas Wriothesely)
following Catherine Howard’s 1542 execution, Norfolk’s influence was threatened
he escaped execution by the timely death of the King in January, 1547
king’s health began to deteriorate following his marriage to Katherine Parr
factional rivalries intensified in a bid to be able to control Edward
leading contender for power was Edward Seymour, the new king’s uncle, and Norfolk’s rival
Foreign Relations and Securing the Succession
Foreign Relations
Foreign Policy, 1509-1514 → primary aim: be a Warrior King
1510 → Henry entered an alliance with Spain, the Holy Roman Empire and the papacy against France → called the Holy League
also renewed the Treaty of Etaples and the French Pension with France
1512 → as part of the League, Henry declared war on France
was emboldened by his perceived alliance with Spain
sent 10,000 men to France, but achieved nothing → defeated at Gascony
this was used by Ferdinand as a diversionary tactic, allowing him to take Navarre
1513 → victory for Henry at the Battle of Spurs
he had led an army of 25,000
captured the towns of Thérouanne and Tournai → SUCCESS
however, he was only able to do this due to his alliance via the Holy League and the towns were on the Burgundian border, so strategically benefited Maximilian more than Henry
FAILURES
Henry was forced to increase taxation to pay for the war → almost led to another rebellion in Yorkshire
the renegotiated French Pension was lost
had to liquidate the royal coffers - spent £1 million on the campaign
1513 → James IV invaded England during the Battle of Spurs
Catherine and her ministers mustered an army to be led by the Earl of Surrey
despite being vastly outnumbered, Surrey’s forces stopped the Scots at Flodden Field
James IV was killed, leaving Henry’s sister as regent for the infant king
whilst Henry did little to build or expand on this victory, it was largely a success, as Scotland’s regent was loyal to Henry so they were no longer a threat
1514 → further campaign against the French discussed but abandoned
abandonment due to Ferdinand and Maximilian making separate peace deals with France
FAILURE → shows Henry’s dependency on these higher powers as he could not continue the war without them
SUCCESSES
Wolsey managed to secure an Anglo-French alliance → success in terms of peaceful foreign policy, however did not achieve Henry’s aim as he had not achieved great military victory
recovered the Etaples pension
agreed that England could keep Tournai → however this is meaningless as in 1519 it was sold back to France
secured a marriage alliance between Henry’s younger sister, Mary, and Louis XII
Foreign Policy, 1514-1527 → primary aim: to be relevant on the European stage
1517 → Treaty of Cambrai
deal between the Charles V (Spain), Maximilian (HRE) and France
left England isolated → failure for Henry, but nothing he could have done to change this
1518 → number of successes resulting in Wolsey becoming the leading diplomat in Europe
September → Anglo-French peace treaty leading to the October Treaty of London
Pope Leo X sent a representative to England to help mobilise forces against the Ottomans → thus the treaty was designed to unite the Christian nations against the rising power of the Ottomans
Wolsey turned this into an international treaty of universal peace + friendship
over 20 European rulers signed up, including Francis, Maximilian and the Pope
provided high status for England
were acting as a great power, providing Henry with glory + political power
showed Wolsey to be the most astute politician in Europe
peace was short-lived, with rivalries quickly resurfacing
short-term success
1520 → the Treaty of the Field of Cloth of Gold
was an extravagant affair which did not achieve anything diplomatically
was a meeting between Francis and Henry at Calais
near the outbreak of the Habsburg-Valois war → both Francis and Charles wanted Henry as an ally
magnificent and opulent → Henry was presented as an equal to Francis
lots of jousting
Wolsey organised a train of 6,000 people to follow and attend on the king
cost 1 years worth of revenue → total of £150,000
despite this economic impact, Henry thought this would earn him prestige
he was seen to be wealthy + important
HOWEVER → it meant he was perceived to be taking sides in the Habsburg-Valois dispute
1521 → Treaty of Bruges negotiated between Wolsey and Charles V
Henry wanted to ally himself with Charles
could improve his relations with the Pope → the Pope wanted to reduce French control over Northern Italy
believed this could help him gain more territory in France
England had important trade links with the Netherlands → which was now controlled by Charles
the Treaty included a marriage alliance between Charles and Princess Mary
was signed secretly → until November, allowing Henry to receive the next instalment of the French pension
1522-25 → the Second French War → was a failure
England declared war with the backing of Charles V
he marched troops into Picardy, led by the Earl of Surrey
Domestic Backlash
Wolsey tried to raise funds in 1522 (forced loans), 1523 (subsidy), and the 1525 Amicable Grant
Amicable Grant led to widespread uprisings + Parliament was reluctant to grant the revenue necessary
Significance → showed the lack of public support
1523 → Duke of Bourbon joined the English → failed to raise support
Charles’ attacks never materialised, even though England produced 11,000 troops who unsuccessfully marched on Paris
Charles abandoned the English, focusing on northern Italy where he recovered Milan in 1521 and won the Battle of La Bicocca in 1522
Henry gained absolutely nothing from this war, which prompted Wolsey to start, secretly, searching for peace
1525 → the Battle of Pavia and the Treaty of the More
Battle of Pavia→ decisive military engagement of the Italian war between Francis and Charles
turning point of the era as Francis I was captured and held captive by Charles V
the 28,000 man French army was annihilated → 10,000 were killed + Francis was captured and sent to Madrid
1526 → he concluded peace + surrendered French claims to Italy, thus exposing Italy to Habsburg domination
Henry approached Charles to launch an attack on France → aimed to make Henry the French King and Charles the monarch of all Christendom
Charles refused and broke off his engagement to Mary→ Henry had nothing to offer him → Francis returned to the throne after the Treaty of Madrid
this refusal prompted Henry to sign the Anglo-French Treaty of the More and lend his support to the League of Cognac
1525 → Henry joins the League of Cognac with France, the Papacy, Florence, Venice and Milan
aimed to counterbalance Charles’ power within Italy
Foreign Policy, 1527-1540 → primary aim was to annul his marriage and break from Rome
1527 → Treaty of Amiens signed with the French
May: Charles V sacked Rome and took the Pope prisoner
was a huge failure for Henry as Charles was Catherine’s nephew
August: The Treaty of Amiens was signed → an anti-Imperial alliance
Henry offered support to the French against the Habsburgs
also had the intention of garnering support towards his annulment
1528 → France committed to invading Italy in order to take back Milan and Naples
France and England declared war on Charles V
1529 → Henry becomes politically isolated
June: French defeat at Landriano and the Papal-Imperial Treaty of Barcelona between the Pope and Charles
August: Franco-Imperial Peace of Cambrai
required the French to give up their ambitions in Italy
reinforced the papacy’s political dependence on Charles
established the international political context in which the dominant individual was Catherine of Aragon’s nephew
meant it would be hard for Henry to secure the annulment
October: the fall of Wolsey
1532 → defensive alliance between England and France
attempt to pressurise Charles into supporting Henry’s marriage annulment
FAILURE → weakened position of both nations failed to pressure the emperor
also their alliance started to unravel as Francis sought a marriage alliance between his son and the Pope’s niece, Catherine de Medici
1533 → Henry starts to break with Rome
no short term repercussions due to Charles’ concern over the growing Ottoman Empire
1536 → pressure upon Henry’s position was reduced
death of Catherine of Aragon and execution of Anne Boleyn opened up the possibility of a renewed alliance with the emperor
renewal of fighting between the emperor and Francis reduced the potential danger of England’s isolated position
1538 → Henry’s position is weakened
threats:
Charles and Francis sign the Treaty of Nice → agree to sever connections with England + peace between the nations
Pope Paul published a bull deposing Henry → absolved English Catholics from the need to obey Henry
reality:
more secure than Henry seemed
Francis + Charles didn’t really trust each other and they both had other priorities
consequences
shows and explains Henry’s enthusiasm for the Six Articles Act → intended to reassure Catholic opinion in England
also explains why he may have married Anne of Cleves → allying himself with the League of Schmalkalden
1539 → Pope sends Cardinal Beaton to Scotland and Cardinal Pole to France to rouse support for a Catholic crusade against Henry
led to Henry marrying Anne of Cleves + allying himself with the Protestant League of Schmalkalden
became unnecessary when relations between Charles and Francis broke down → Henry’s position became more secure
Foreign Policy, 1540-1547 → primary aim: pursuit of military glory, recapture former lands in France as well as uniting Scotland and England
1540 → new kingdom of Ireland declared
all Irish lands were surrendered the the Crown → promise of return following pledges of loyalty to Henry VIII
in return, some Irish lords were included in Parliament in London
principles of English common law extended across the country
signified that Ireland was moving from a clan-based structure to a centralised state with the monarch at the top → typical amongst the rest of Europe
however, the Irish clung on to supporting the Pope and Catholic faith
1542 → invasion of Scotland
Scottish defeat at the Battle of Solway Moss
James had assembled 30,000 men but due to a nobles revolt James had to raise another force of only 15,000 to fight Henry’s force of 20,000 men
Solway Moss:
3,000 English surrounded the Scots, who were forced to surrender → over 1,000 Scots were taken prisoner, including significant nobles
James V died 2 weeks later, leaving six-day old Mary as Queen of Scotland
weakened the Scots considerably
however, Henry failed to mount a full-scale invasion, instead using diplomatic pressure to secure Scottish objectives
1543 → Treaty of Greenwich and the start of the Rough Wooing
Edward was betrothed to Mary
Scots refused to ratify the treaty → Earl of Hertford sent to raid Edinburgh, Leith and St Andrews (the rough wooing)
this achieved little as the Scottish Parliament rejected the Treaty and renewed all treaties with France (Auld Alliance)
Reasons for Failure of Scottish FP
Henry neglected the opportunity to secure his policy by military force in 1542 (although he had the opportunity)
he failed to heed Sadler’s warnings about Scottish hostility to his intentions in Scotland
rough wooing was merely retaliation → didn’t think of possible strategic objectives and simply antagonised the Scots and it cost a lot of money
1544 → Henry was allied to Charles V → start of the the Third French War
Henry sent an army of 48,000 men to Calais → Charles and Henry were to send their armies to march on Paris
both followed their own priorities → Henry took Boulogne, but Charles signed a treaty at Crépy
1545 → French counter-invasion of the Isle of Wight
Francis sent troops to Scotland to support an invasion of England
English defeated at the Battle of Ancrum Moor but the Scots failed to invade
French force landed in the Isle of Wight, sinking Henry’s flagship, the Mary Rose, in the Solent
HOWEVER → the French failed to recapture Boulogne and the invasion of northern England never materialised
1546 → Treaty of Ardres signed
Henry kept Boulogne
renewal of payments of pension money from Etaples was agreed
agreed that if the French paid all the pension money outstanding, Boulogne would be returned in 1554 → Henry thought this was unlikely due to previous history of these payments
Henry had gained an element of glory
HOWEVER the war cost £2 million → paid for by large-scale borrowing, sale of monastic land and debasement of the coinage
left a legacy of increased inflation and debt for Mary and Edward’s reigns
Securing the Succession
1534 → Succession Act
Mary declared illegitimate
stated that succession would rest with Anne’s children
1536 → Succession Act
followed Anne’s execution
declared Elizabeth illegitimate
stated that in the absence of a legitimate heir, the king could determine the succession by will or letter patent
allowed Henry to legitimise his illegitimate son, the Duke of Richmond, however he died in 1536
1544 → Succession Act
re-legitimated Mary and Elizabeth
affirmed Henry’s right to determine the succession by will or letters patent
1546 → Henry’s Will (December)
confirmed the succession arrangements
stated that if Edward, Mary and Elizabeth died without children the heirs of Henry’s sister, Mary, the Duchess of Suffolk, should succeed
English Society in the Reign of Henry VIII
Elites and Commoners
structure of society remained much the same → nobles, greater gentry wielded political and economic influence, whilst rural majority experienced little change
there was significant social change, however, with the growth in the numbers of those engaged in professional and commercial activities, as well as greater social mobility
Henry relied on the landed elites
gave property and/or titles to nobles → so they could exert royal authority
1536 → Suffolk given property in Lincolnshire after the rebellion there
ensured full support by executing nobles when there was any doubt of loyalty
1521 → execution of the Duke of Buckingham
conferred knighthoods as a sign of royal favour
as more land became available, so did the size of the gentry- → 5,000 gentry families by 1540
dissolution of the monasteries offered opportunities to increase the size of landed estates and lease out farming land
increased complexity of government also gave the gentry more opportunities to make their mark
legal training became highly valued, with local administration being increasingly performed by lawyers as opposed to clergymen
growth in the urban elites → towns + cities grew, increased numbers of merchants + skilled artisans
wealthy burgesses had a political voice in Parliament → they could be elected there
semi-skilled + unskilled workers, however, found life tough → food prices subject to wild variations
royal supremacy and greater availability of land brought about change
peasant acquired copyholds to land
prosperous peasants bought land outright, thus increasing the size of their holdings
increase in yeoman → farming for profit rather than subsistence
there was also an increased movement from rural to urban communities
Regional Issues → measures were taken to create a single, unified state
Ireland
England tried to keep control through force → had a standing army there
Crown kept tight control over the parliament
1541 → Henry adopted the title of King of Ireland
Wales
Pre-1536 → Wales was a separate territory from England, though in practice it was under English control
had been comprised of marcher lordships and the Principality of Wales
1536 → Cromwell’s Wales Act (Act of Union)
divided Wales into shire counties which operated in the same way as English counties
e.g. had JPs
gave the Welsh shires direct representation in the House of Commons
brought Wales into the same legal framework as England
Principality of Wales as well as the four bordering English counties (Shropshire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Gloucestershire) came under the jurisdiction of the Council of Wales
offered the area cheap + local access to the law
meant that Wales became incorporated into England → English culture and language were imposed
Palatinates
1536 → Act Resuming Liberties to the Crown
Lancashire, Cheshire and Durham were brought back under English control
bishop of Durham was allowed to retain some independence
palatinate court of Chancery was allowed to continue to operate
change seems to have been more evolutionary than revolutionary
England
Scottish Border
remained problematic for Henry → was difficult to police as much of it was remote and inhospitable in the winter
both sides of the border had a reputation for lawlessness
cattle and sheep rustling were rife; violence was common
the border was split into three marches → each under the jurisdiction of a warden
the filling of these post could be difficult for the king → needed complete loyalty
Henry often appointed men from the gentry as opposed to local nobles → these men were likely to be completely loyal
e.g. 1542 → appointed Thomas Lord Wharton, who had only recently been raised to the peerage
Council in the North
the north of England was problematic → it was so far from the governing base of London
1536 → huge northern support for the Pilgrimage of Grace leading Henry and Cromwell to re-establish the Council in the North as a permanent body based in York
had professional staff, and both administrative + legal functions
the Council helped keep the north quiet during the 1549 summer of rebellions
however → northerners resented the appointment of southerners to the Council
Social Impact of Religious Upheaval
SHORT TERM → resentment at the dissolution of the monasteries and attacks on traditional Catholic practices was exacerbated by fears of an attack on parish churches
led to the Pilgrimage of Grace → major rebellion
Elizabeth Barton, the Holy Maid of Kent → believed that Henry’s annulment was sinful and went against the word of God
she claimed to have visions from God and proclaimed that Henry was not acting as a Christian should → said to his face he would be eternally punished
claimed that after the annulment, he would cease to be king within a month
Act of Attainder passed against her and in 1534 she was executed
Franciscan + Carthusian Monks → opposed Henry’s policies, and then later monks opposed how Henry was imprisoning the earlier monks
they spoke out against him, and went on hunger strike in the prisons
would rather starve to death than submit to Henry (however, some of them swore the oaths demanded of them → hollow victory)
John Fisher → believed that the papacy’s power was genuine and anyone who opposed it was committing a mortal sin
spoke out verbally → even to Henry face and was a supporter of Elizabeth Barton
wrote out against Henry
was executed in 1535
Thomas More → fiercely anti-Protestant and anti-divorce
felt the Church would no longer receive the word of God
burned Lutherans at the stake + was vocal about his opposition to the annulment
he resigned from his post of Lord Chancellor before being executed in 1535
huge amount of land was transferred from the Church to the Crown → temporarily increase the Crown’s wealth
by 1547 nearly two thirds of the confiscated Church and monastic property had been sold off → to fund Henry’s expensive foreign policy
increased both the size + wealth of the landholding gentry
education suffered, due to the loss of monastery schools
Around 800 religious houses were dissolved, disrupting institutions that had traditionally supported education and literacy → libraries etc. grammar schools
many monks and nuns became unemployed → roughly 10,000 monks, nuns, and friars were displaced
some monks were able to secure employment as secular priests, whilst others received pensions
any monasteries has play key roles in their communities, which was now lost
had offered jobs, welfare services, education and hospitals
Rebellions
Taxation
Henry’s taxation to pay for wars caused unrest
1513 → complaints in Yorkshire about the raising of a subsidy for Henry’s campaigns
some demands had to be written off
1525 → widespread opposition to the Amicable Grant
1,000 people on the Essex-Suffolk border refused payment
the Dukes of Essex and Suffolk faced 4,000 refusals, leading to the King backing down
Wolsey sought pardon for the protestors, and the leaders were treated leniently
100,000 people in Lavenham protested
unrest shows that Henry shouldn’t press his people to hard
the next invasion of France → he supplemented revenue with profits from monastic land instead
Lincolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace
was the largest single rebellion in the history of Tudor England
around 40,000 people were involved in the Pilgrimage of Grace, comprising 9 armies
Timeline
1536
October → 2nd: Lincolnshire Rising begins
4th: spreads to Horncastle, and leads to the murder of Dr Rayne (chancellor of the diocese of Lincoln)
7th: 10,000 Lincolnshire rebels converge on Lincoln Cathedral
8th: Pilgrimage of Grace begins in the East Riding of Yorkshire → under the leadership of Robert Aske
10th: Pilgrimage of Grace spreads to West Riding and Aske writes up the Lincoln Articles to present to the Mayor of York
18th: Lincolnshire Rising is ended by the Duke of Suffolk’s forces (the leaders Kendall and Melton are executed)
20th: Pontefract Castle is surrendered to the rebels by Lord Darcy (member of the Aragonese faction)
25th: rebellion spreads to the high Pennies and the Lake District
26th: rebels meet Duke of Norfolk near Doncaster
27th: rebels present Norfolk with the Lincoln Articles and a truce was signed
November → East and West Riding rebels gradually disperse
Bowes and Ellerker met with Henry VIII but little progress was made
December → rebel leaders met again at Pontefract to discuss their demands
3rd: royal proclamation offering pardon to rebels
6th: list of 25 demands collectively called the Pontefract Articles → presented to Norfolk, and a bargain was reached
part of the bargain was that Aske was to spend Christmas with the King to discuss their demands, however the rebels had dispersed, so momentum was lost and there was no way to pressurise Henry to give in to any of the demands
1537
January → renewed rebellion in the East Riding of Yorkshire, led by Sir Francis Bigod
also a rebellion in Cumberland
suppressed by Norfolk and martial law was declared
74 rebels were hanged
Causes of Rebellion
Religious Motives
fears about dissolving the monasteries
loss of charitable and educational functions, offered by the monasteries (and their facilities and services)
loss of parish churches which were monastic properties
fear that the north would be impoverished if monastic land was transferred to southerners
fear for parish churches and traditional religious practices
Cromwell’s Injunctions of 1536
discouragement of celebration of locally important saints and of pilgrimage
rumours that church plates and jewels, bequeathed by parishioners, would be confiscated and that parishes might be amalgamated
Secular Motives
economic grievances
resentment of taxation (amicable grant etc.)
tenants; grievances
relevant for the extension of the rebellion into Cumberland and Westmorland
imposition of the Duke of Suffolk upon Lincolnshire as a magnate
courtly conspiracy by Aragonese Faction
wanted to restore Mary as heir
exploited northerners’ religious and financial concerns to pressurise the king
Economic Development in the Reign of Henry VIII
Trade
Pros
the volume of trade increased
the volume of cloth exports roughly doubled between the late fifteenth century and the middle of Henry VIII’s reign.
places such as Southampton had a short-term boom due to trade with Venice
there was an increase in the exportation of cheaper fabrics, such as kersey
shows the diversification of England’s trade + their responsiveness to the demands of the day
profits due to increase in the woollen industry
cloth exports accounted for around 80–90% of English exports, and rising customs revenues reflected the growing profitability of the woollen industry
growth in mining industries e.g. Cornish tin, lead, coal and iron ore
Cons
decline in the raw wool market
allowed the cloth industry to grow, increasing profits for the crown and employability in regions such as Norwich, Colchester and Leeds
however, some regions were dependent on the raw wool market, so they suffered → also left England vulnerable to disruption in Antwerp and the European market
increased routing through London had an impact on ports e.g. Bristol
the increasing concentration of trade through London contributed to the relative decline of regional ports such as Bristol, demonstrating that Tudor economic growth was uneven and increasingly centred on the capital
profits didn’t find their way back to England
much of the trade went through foreign hands first
work in the cloth industry was not always secure
disruption from Antwerp etc.
Exploration
Henry VIII made no attempt to build on the achievements of Cabot + the Bristol merchants
Robert Thorne continued involvement in an Iceland + Newfoundland fishery
other merchants failed to procure royal support for exploration
Prosperity and Depression
Prosperity
1525 → the population grew and the mortality rate dropped
indicates that there were fewer catastrophic epidemics, better nutrition, and improved agricultural recovery after the late medieval crises
HOWEVER → rising populations:
increase pressure on food supplies,
push up prices,
and contribute to poverty and unemployment
1520s → agricultural prices increased, which therefore increases income
1544-1546 → debasement of coinage created a short-term artificial boom
Depression
bad harvests (1520-21, 1527-29) led to increased food prices
food prices doubled → people can’t afford to eat
real wages began to decline due to debasement
considerable amount of urban poverty
growing unemployment amongst the rural labourers
Enclosures → legal process of consolidating small landholders into larger forms
Pros
1517 →Wolsey launched an enclosure commission
188 defendants were found guilty of illegally enclosing
very little damage as a result of enclosures occurred during this period
rural society remained relatively stable
agricultural production was not severely disrupted
and the economy could absorb commercial changes (like sheep farming)
1534 → further legislation was enforced to limit sheep ownership and engrossing
introduction of further legislation to limit sheep ownership and engrossing demonstrates that the Crown recognised the growing commercial pressures in agriculture and attempted to prevent excessive concentration of land and livestock in the hands of wealthy landlords
however it was largely ineffective
Cons
had little impact
demonstrates that the Tudor economy was growing gradually
caused moral issues as poor people had to leave their homes
thus, it led to unemployment and homelessness and an exacerbated wealth divide
1515 → legislation to limit the practice was ineffective
Religion, Ideas and Reform
Renaissance Ideas
Humanism and Education
humanism was taking root, promoting a more secular education
by the end of Henry VIII’s reign, humanist influences had gained a lasting hold on university curricula
university education or legal training came to replace the Church as the way to rise to prominence in politics
Wolsey had been a cleric, yet Cromwell was a lawyer
1509-1514 → Erasmus visited England four times
appointed as the first professor of Greek at Cambridge
1516 → published a Greek New Testament with a Latin translation
Erasmianism influenced younger English humanists → often described as ‘Christian humanists’ as they were keen to establish the truth around Christian text
Henry VIII appointed humanist tutors to Edward and Elizabeth
Katherine Parr had a humanist education, patronising the arts and literature
Influence of the Renaissance in England
Henry VIII saw himself as a promoter of new ideas and humanism
Henry had received a humanist education himself → had been called a ‘genius’ by Erasmus
promoted the increase of grammar schools with humanist curricula → thus creating a more educated Tudor government
English humanists became influential in government and the Church
Thomas More → humanist writer + Lord Chancellor between 1530-1532; was both a lawyer + statesman, as well as an intellectual
well-educated diplomats emerged → could communicate elegantly with their counterparts abroad
thus, helped with Tudor foreign policy and foreign relations
visual culture
combined Renaissance elements with traditional Gothic style e.g. Nonsuch Palace and Hampton Court Palace
classical learning spread as humanist groups formed in Oxford and Cambridge
more schools became influenced by humanist approaches to education
Reform of the Church
Weaknesses of the Church
corruption → including pluralism
simony → buying Church office
non-residence → receiving the profits of a post but being absent from that post
corruption of the legal privileges of the clergy + clerical misconduct
gave rise to some anticlericalism
worldly monasteries that no longer fulfilled their spiritual functions
led Wolsey to dissolve around 20 houses in the 1520s
Evidence of Early English Protestantism
1517 → Luther’s attack on the Church in Germany
followers rejected papal authority, believing in faith alone
1520s → German Protestants come to London
Protestant group based in Cambridge → including Thomas Cranmer
ideas attracted some Christian humanists → though there was little committed attempt to spread Lutheran Protestantism
Changes to Doctrine and Religious Practices
Cranmer and Cromwell helped to reform Church doctrine
introduction of Protestant beliefs:
justification by faith → one can achieve grace by faith, regardless of good works
consubstantiation → bread and wine of the Eucharist are spiritually the body and blood of Christ; don’t actually become it
these were the natural consequence of the break with Rome
population was (reluctantly) forced to accept Lutheran influences on their faith
English Bible introduced
legislation, relics and images destroyed
Henry disliked Protestantism
as shown by the Six Articles in 1539
he never fully became Catholic or Protestant → CofE remained an odd mixture of the two
Dissolution of the Monasteries
Religious Reasons
papal loyalty → monks were loyal to the authority of the Pope as opposed to Henry
monasteries were bastions of Catholic doctrine → Henry and Cromwell were keen to remove any chance of return to Catholicism on religious grounds
perceived corruption → some monasteries were seen as having poor standards of behaviour and piety
Secular Reasons
nobles’ loyalty → nobles’ loyalty could be bought with land acquired from monasteries
they would entrench change and resist the restoration of papal authority
to finance Henry’s army → the money from the land and the treasures of the monasteries could finance Henry’s wars
beneficial as it could reduce rebellion from people angered by raised taxation
monasteries were outdated → 1535 Poor Law
provided support within villages, making monastic welfare outdated
printing reduced the need for scribes
Continuity and Change in Religion by 1547
Continuity
hierarchy of the Church remained largely in tact
little attempt to alter the interior of the Churches → whilst the icons and relics were removed, the actual interiors remained the same
services remained largely traditional in form → held in Latin with an importance placed on music
1539 → Six Articles Act and 1540 → Cromwell’s fall
weakened the cause of religious reform
Change
jurisdiction of the Pope had been replaced by the more visible authority figure of the King
Supreme Head of the Church
monasteries had been dissolved
many monastic buildings fell into ruin
massive transfer of resources from the Church to the Crown through the dissolutions
Paris churches were required to possess Bibles in English
religious doctrine had been influenced by Protestantism
Timeline
1525 → wrote the Defence of the Seven Sacraments alongside Thomas More
attacked Lutheranism
1525 → Henry investigates the possibility of divorce from Catherine of Aragon
largely CATHOLIC as he sought to do this under Catholic canon law
1527 → the Sack of Rome → capture of Pope Clement VII by Charles V
was a push towards Protestantism → Pope was unable/unwilling to disobey Charles, so could not grant Henry’s annulment
1528 → Cardinal Campeggio sent to hold legatine court at Blackfriars
CATHOLIC → Henry was still seeking a ruling from papal authority
1529 → turning point
Henry began to consider his own power and how to extend it
both PROTESTANT + CATHOLIC → was still trying to go through the Pope, however marked the beginning of his movement towards royal control (aligning with Protestant beliefs of national churches)
the fall of Wolsey
both PROTESTANT + CATHOLIC → fell due to his failure to secure papal annulment (so his failure do things the Catholic way) but this gave rise to Protestant advisors such as Cromwell and Cranmer
Reformation Parliament began to sit in November
both PROTESTANT + CATHOLIC → moving towards Protestantism; Parliament began passing laws limiting papal authority in England
was initially about royal power, although it lay the groundwork for the break with Rome
1530 → Henry collected opinions from the great universities
both PROTESTANT + CATHOLIC → Henry sought theological justification from European universities → using Catholic methods, however was also building a case against papal authority
1532
Supplication against the Ordinaries passed by the House of Commons
PROTESTANT → petition from parliament, complaining that the church courts abused their power
pressured the clergy to accept greater royal control
Thomas More resigned as Lord Chancellor
demonstrates that England was becoming more PROTESTANT
he resigned as he could not support the Protestant policies and the move toward the break with Rome
Act in Conditional Restraint of Annates is passed
was PROTESTANT → stopped payments from English bishops going to the Pope
threatened the Pope financially, and was placing Henry’s power above that of the Pope
Anne Boleyn becomes pregnant
forced Henry to pursue the Great Matter and break with Rome (aided the PROTESTANT cause)
Anne Boleyn marries Henry → her Protestant leanings push Henry to pursue that path
1533
23rd May → the Act in Restraint of Appeals is passed
declared that legal cases could not be appealed to Rome → England became the final authority in Church Matters
100% PROTESTANT → follows their belief of national churches
June → Anne is crowned Queen
July → Pope Clement declared that Anne was not the King’s wife
he refused to accept the new marriage, pushing Henry away from Catholicism
PROTESTANT PUSH
1534
Act of Succession passed
is PROTESTANT as was the stepping stone to the Act of Supremacy
declared Prince Mary illegitimate → moving away from papal authority who recognised Mary as legitimate
strengthened parliamentary sovereignty
Act of Supremacy
formalised the Break with Rome and embedded Royal supremacy into statue law
PROTESTANT → blurred the line between secular + religious power and enabled the dissolution of the monasteries
provoked resistance
revolution in English governance
Treason Act
meant that denial of supremacy became a capital offence → religious dissent became political betrayal
meant that supremacy could no longer be ignored
harsh enforcement contributed to resentment → Pilgrimage of Grace
PROTESTANT
Act of First Fruits and Tenths
the first years income from a benefice (first fruits) and 10% of annual clerical income (tenths)
gave the royal supremacy economy sustainability
financially strengthened the Tudor state by helping Henry consolidate his control over the Church through money as opposed to through doctrine
reduced England’s financial dependency on the Pope → thus papal influence was reduced
1536
Act of the Dissolution of Lesser Monasteries
turned supremacy into a material revolution → Reformation shifted from a constitutional break into a social and economic transformation
altered land ownership and the structure of the elite
revealed that the religious changes were also mixed with financially charged motives
accelerated administrative government → supporting the idea of a developing Tudor fiscal-military state
provoked major rebellion → Pilgrimage of Grace, Elizabeth Barton etc.
Act of Ten Articles
reduced the 7 sacraments to 3 → was a doctrinal compromise as was neither fully Protestant nor fully Catholic
first official doctrinal shift → transition from a political break to a theological break
reveals the doctrinal ambiguity → shows the Reformation was cautious and controlled
shows that Henry was not actually wedded to Protestantism → he had not fully embraced Lutheran theology
Royal Injunctions issued by Cromwell → preaching against papal authority + the removal of superstitious practices, instruction of the 10 commandments and the Lord’s prayer as well as the encouragement of the English Bible reading
shows the Reformation was enforced administratively, not just legislatively
increased centralised government control → Church became subordinate
helped provoke Pilgrimage of Grace → unpopularity
as this was the most direct Protestant change and came from Cromwell → shows that Cromwell was pushing the Reformation
Lincolnshire Uprising, Pilgrimage of Grace, Cumberland Uprising
large Northern rebellions → protesting religious reforms
dissolution of the monasteries, Cromwell’s influence
shows a push-back and maybe a move back towards Catholicism
1537 → The Bishops’ Book
was a drive towards CATHOLICISM
maybe off the back of the prior rebellions
official statement of belief mixing Catholic and reformist ideas → kept traditional Catholic doctrines but reduced emphasis on papal authority
1538
Royal Injunctions issued by Cromwell → order Churches to place English bibles in parishes, remove some superstitious practices and images
PROTESTANT
November → execution of John Lambert
was executed for denying transubstantiation
this was a Catholic belief
December → Henry was excommunicated by Pope Paul II
this was due to Henry’s Protestant actions, and pushed him to become more Protestant
1539
April → publication of the Great Bible
this was the first official English Bible authorised for use in English Churches
step towards PROTESTANTISM
Act of Six Articles
reaffirmed traditional Catholic beliefs
transubstantiation, clerical celibacy, confession etc.
Protestant beliefs were to be punished harshly
Act of the Dissolution of the Greater Monasteries
both CATHOLIC AND PROTESTANT
this weakened the traditional Catholic church → was a step away from Catholicism but NOT towards Protestantism
was more about increasing royal power and wealth, as money and land went to the crown and nobility
1543
Act for the Advancement of the True Religion
was a CATHOLIC act, as it restricted who could read the English Bible and stopped the spread of radical protestant ideas
reinforced traditional hierarchy and control over religion
The King’s Book
was mostly CATHOLIC but was effectively less of a religious move, more of a power grab
reaffirmed traditional Catholic beliefs and supported traditional sacraments and good works
accepted the English bible and royal supremacy, however the doctrine was largely catholic
1546
Chantries Act
PROTESTANT → closed chantries
protestants rejected praying for souls in purgatory
the removal of the chantries directly attacked the Catholic belief in purgatory
Anne Askew was burned for heresy
this was CATHOLIC → Anne was a protestant who denied transubstantiation
she was executed for heresy due to her protestant beliefs
shows that Henry was still willing to punish radical protestants
he held his religious conservatism → he was not truly a Protestant, had merely been doing this for his own financial and political gain