Comprehensive AP United States History Review Packet Notes
Exam Format and Thematic Frameworks
The Advanced Placement United States History (APUSH) examination is structured around several thematic ideas that intertwine throughout the course content. These themes include American and National Identity; Politics and Power; Work, Exchange, and Technology; American Regional Culture; Social Structures; Migration and Settlement; Geography and the Environment; and America in the World. The Multiple Choice Section of the exam is weighted by historical period. Period 1 accounts for of the exam. Periods 2 through 5 collectively comprise of the assessment. Periods 6 through 8 also represent of the exam content. Finally, Period 9 accounts for the remaining
Period 1 (1491 – 1607): Early Contact and Colonization
This era is characterized by the Columbian Exchange, which was the systemic transfer of goods, diseases, ideas, and populations between the Americas and Europe. Maritime advancements were critical to these interactions, including the use of the astrolabe, the development of the caravel ship, and the influence of Prince Henry the Navigator’s School of Navigation in Portugal. Spanish colonization was primarily focused in South America, the Caribbean, Mexico, Florida, and the Southwestern region of North America. The primary spiritual objective was the conversion of natives to Catholicism. To manage labor and resources, the Spanish implemented the Encomienda System, where natives were enslaved to work in mineral mines and plantation-based agriculture. A rigid, caste-like social system was established to maintain order: Peninsulares (plantation owners), Creoles (land-owning small farmers with few slaves), Mestizos and Mulattoes (landless whites and indentured servants), and Native Americans and African Slaves. St. Augustine, Florida, was established as the first city in North America.
French colonization efforts focused on the Fur Trade and maintained interactions with the Iroquois natives, primarily settling along the St. Lawrence River in what is now Canada. English colonization was often driven by Joint-Stock Companies seeking profit, such as gold. The Roanoke Colony, founded by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1587, failed mysteriously when its inhabitants disappeared. Jamestown was founded in May 1607 with the approval of King James I. Under the leadership of John Smith, the colony survived a difficult initial winter plagued by a poor location, lack of clean water, mosquito-borne diseases, severe drought, and colonists unprepared for manual labor. Initially, the Powhatan Confederacy, led by Chief Powhatan, traded food for English guns and knives to consolidate power over neighboring tribes. However, this relationship eventually deteriorated following the marriage of Pocahontas to John Rolfe, the individual responsible for the inception of tobacco farming in the region.
Period 2 (1607 – 1754): Colonial Development and Regional Identity
In the Chesapeake colonies, Jamestown was sustained by the House of Burgesses, created in 1619 by the Virginia Company. This was one of the earliest forms of colonial government; while the king-appointed governor held veto power, the House controlled the governor's salary. Tobacco became the essential export that saved the colony from extinction, though it led to a male-dominated society. To encourage migration, the Headright System (1617) offered of land to new arrivals who paid their own way and allowed established planters to gain land by sponsoring others. Indentured servitude also flourished, wherein planters paid for the passage of individuals who then provided labor for several years before earning their freedom to become independent farmers.
In New England, the Pilgrims (or Separatists) sought a total break from the Anglican Church. Led by William Bradford, they arrived on the Mayflower on November 21, 1620, and established the Mayflower Compact to create a basic legal system. In contrast, the Puritans (or Congregationalists) aimed to "purify" the Anglican Church. John Winthrop, elected governor in October 1629, famously described their mission as creating a "city upon a hill" in his sermon "Model of Christian Charity." Tensions with natives led to the Pequot War after the murder of two English traders. Regional differences were stark: the Chesapeake focused on economic plantation agriculture and was male-dominated, while New England was family-oriented and focused on religious ideals. Other colonies included Providence, founded by Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson after their banishment from Massachusetts; New York, originally a Dutch colony that moved to British control in 1674; Pennsylvania, founded by William Penn and the Quakers for religious freedom and equal rights; and the Carolinas, which focused on tobacco, rice, and indigo.
Major conflicts and shifts in the late 17th and early 18th centuries shaped the colonies. King Phillip’s War (1675) broke out in New England when Metacom (King Phillip) resisted English encroachment and forced conversions; the colonists eventually killed him and sold captured natives into slavery. In Virginia, Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) saw Nathaniel Bacon lead a revolt against Governor William Berkeley's refusal to retaliate against native attacks. This served as a turning point as landowners transitioned from indentured servants to increased slave labor. The Great Awakening (mid-1730s to 1760s) brought religious revival through the emotional sermons of Jonathan Edwards and the wide-reaching preaching of George Whitefield.
Period 3 (1754 – 1800): Conflict, Revolution, and New Foundations
The Seven Years War (French and Indian War) from June 1754 to 1763 pitted British colonists against the French and their native allies. While the British won and France ceded all North American land in the Treaty of Paris (1763), the war created a massive debt for England and fostered anti-British sentiment among colonists. Issues following the war included Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763), where a native uprising resisted cultural encroachment, and the Proclamation Line of 1763, which forbade settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. To pay for the war, Britain imposed taxes: the Sugar Act (1764), Quartering Act (1765), and the Stamp Act (1765). The Stamp Act was particularly hated, leading to the Stamp Act Congress in 1766 and the rise of the Sons of Liberty. Although repealed, it was followed by the Declaratory Act, the Townshend Acts (1767), and the Navigation Acts.
Retaliation intensified with the Boston Massacre (1770), where five colonists were killed, and the Boston Tea Party (December 16, 1773), during which the Sons of Liberty dumped approximately of tea in response to the Tea Act. Britain responded with the Coercive (Intolerable) Acts of 1774. The Revolutionary War followed, beginning at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. Thomas Paine’s "Common Sense" (January 1776) argued for independence, and the Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776. Key turning points included the Battle of Saratoga (1778), which secured French aid, and the Battle of Yorktown (1781), where General Cornwallis surrendered. The Treaty of Paris (1782) ended the war. The nation transitioned from the weak Articles of Confederation (1781) to the stronger federal government of the Constitution (1789). Washington’s presidency concluded with his Farewell Address, warning against political parties and foreign influence, while the Whiskey Rebellion (1794) proved the new government’s willingness to enforce federal law.
Period 4 (1800 – 1848): Expansion, Reform, and the Market Revolution
The Adams Administration was marked by the Alien and Sedition Acts (1798), which aimed to curb dissent and slow immigration. In response, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison penned the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (1799), arguing for state nullification of unconstitutional federal acts. The Election of 1800 represented a peaceful transfer of power between parties. During this time, the Marshall Court (1801–1835) established federal supremacy; notably, Marbury v. Madison (1803) created the power of judicial review. Jefferson overseen the Louisiana Purchase in April 1803, acquiring land west of the Mississippi from Napoleon. This led to the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806), assisted by Sacagawea.
The War of 1812 (1812–1815) was triggered by British impressment of American sailors and native resistance led by Tecumseh. Despite the burning of Washington D.C., the war ended with the Treaty of Ghent (1814), affirming American independence. The era saw major legislation like the Missouri Compromise (1820), which admitted Maine as a free state and Missouri as a slave state, prohibiting slavery above the parallel. The Monroe Doctrine (1823) warned Europe against further colonization in the West. The Market Revolution introduced innovations like the cotton gin, telegraph, and railroads. Andrew Jackson’s presidency (1829–1837) involved the Nullification Crisis over tariffs, the veto of the Second Bank of the US, and the Indian Removal Act (1830), which culminated in the Trail of Tears (1838). Socially, the Second Great Awakening fueled movements for Temperance, Abolition, prison reform, and Women’s Rights, challenging the "cult of domesticity."
Period 5 (1844 – 1877): Manifest Destiny, Civil War, and Reconstruction
The Mexican-American War (1846–1848) resulted in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, giving the US control of California, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and the Rio Grande border. The Wilmot Proviso (1846) unsuccessfully attempted to ban slavery in these new lands. Tensions grew with the Compromise of 1850, which included a strict Fugitive Slave Law. Anti-slavery sentiment was further fueled by Harriet Beecher Stowe’s "Uncle Tom’s Cabin" (1852) and the Underground Railroad. The Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) allowed popular sovereignty, leading to "Bleeding Kansas." The Dred Scott decision (1857) ruled that slaves were not citizens and that Congress could not ban slavery in territories.
The Civil War (1861–1865) began at Fort Sumter. The North possessed industrial and population advantages, while the South had superior military leadership in Robert E. Lee. President Lincoln expanded executive power by suspending habeas corpus. The Emancipation Proclamation (January 1, 1863) shifted the war's focus to ending slavery, and the Gettysburg Address (November 19, 1863) emphasized preserving the Union. Reconstruction (1865–1877) saw the passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments. Conflict between President Andrew Johnson and Radical Republicans like Thaddeus Stevens led to Johnson’s impeachment in 1868 for violating the Tenure of Office Act, though he remained in office.
Period 6 (1865 – 1898): The Gilded Age, Industrialization, and Populism
The Gilded Age was driven by technology, including Thomas Edison’s light bulb and George Westinghouse’s long-distance electricity transmission. Henry Ford revolutionized mass production. Industry was dominated by "Captains of Industry" (or Robber Barons): Cornelius Vanderbilt (railroads), Andrew Carnegie (steel), John D. Rockefeller (Standard Oil), and J.P. Morgan (finance). Rockefeller utilized horizontal and vertical integration to build his monopoly. This industrial growth forced workers into harsh factory conditions and assembly line specialization, leading to the rise of unions. The Knights of Labor sought idealistic conditions, while the American Federation of Labor (Samuel Gompers) focused on concrete goals. Violent clashes like the Haymarket Riot (1886) and the Pullman Strike (1894) occurred.
Ideologically, Social Darwinism promoted "survival of the fittest" in capitalism, while Carnegie’s "Gospel of Wealth" argued for the moral responsibility of the rich. Socialism, led by Eugene V. Debs, challenged these views. Politics saw the rise of the Populist Party, representing farmers struggling with price inflation and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890). William Jennings Bryan delivered his "Cross of Gold" speech supporting the Free Silver Movement, but the Gold Standard Act was eventually signed. The 17th Amendment (1913) later allowed for the direct election of Senators.
Period 7 (1890 – 1945): Progressivism, Global Wars, and Economic Crisis
The Progressive Era (1895–1920) shifts the mindset toward societal responsibility for individuals. Reformers included muckrakers like Upton Sinclair ("The Jungle"), Ida Tarbell (Standard Oil), and Jacob Riis (tenement housing). Racial equality was debated between Booker T. Washington (self-help and compromise) and W.E.B. Du Bois (immediate rights and the NAACP). Teddy Roosevelt spearheaded trust-busting and conservation. American Imperialism was driven by economic interests and ideologies like the "White Man’s Burden." The Spanish-American War (April 1898–August 1898) resulted in the acquisition of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam. The Roosevelt Corollary (1904) established the US as an international police power.
During WWI, the US moved from neutrality to intervention following unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmerman Telegram (February 1917). The Selective Service Act (1917) instituted the draft, and the Espionage (1917) and Sedition (1918) Acts restricted dissent. After the war, Wilson proposed his Fourteen Points, but the US never joined the League of Nations. The 1920s brought a consumer culture boom, the 19th Amendment (women’s suffrage), and the Harlem Renaissance (Langston Hughes, Louis Armstrong). Prohibition (18th Amendment) led to speakeasies and the rise of organized crime like Al Capone. The Great Depression began with the Stock Market crash in October 1929, caused by overproduction, corporate debt, and buying on margin. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal introduced programs like the CCC, TVA, and FDIC. WWII (1941–1945) eventually pulled the US out of the depression, ending with Truman dropping atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Period 8 (1945 – 1980): The Cold War and Social Transformation
The Cold War was defined by the policy of Containment. The Truman Doctrine (1947) provided aid to Greece and Turkey, and the Marshall Plan (1947) helped rebuild Europe. NATO and the Warsaw Pact established opposing military alliances. Senator Joseph McCarthy fueled the Red Scare with false claims of communist infiltration (McCarthyism). Hot conflicts occurred in the Korean War (ending at the 38th parallel) and the Vietnam War. Domestically, the Civil Rights Movement gained momentum with Brown v. Board of Education (1954), desegregating schools, and the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955). The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a landmark achievement. The 1950s also saw the Baby Boom, the GI Bill, the Interstate Highway Act (1956), and the rise of Levittown-style suburbia. The era concluded with the Watergate Scandal, leading to Richard Nixon’s resignation in 1974.
Period 9 (1980 – Present): Conservatism and the Modern Era
The rise of conservatism defined the 1980s under Ronald Reagan. "Reaganomics" focused on supply-side tax cuts and deregulation. Foreign policy included a massive military buildup and the Iran-Contra Affair (1986). George H.W. Bush oversaw the end of the Cold War and the Persian Gulf War (1990–1991). Bill Clinton’s presidency saw the passage of NAFTA and a technology boom (Microsoft, Apple, Google, Amazon), but ended in impeachment for perjury and obstruction of justice in 1998. The Election of 2000 was decided by the Supreme Court in Bush v. Gore. George W. Bush implemented the No Child Left Behind Act and declared a War on Terrorism following the September 11, 2001 attacks, leading to invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom).