Comprehensive History Notes

Confucianism

• Belief system focused on respect, family, and education, dating back to the 500s BCE.
• Social order is based on 5 key relationships:
  • Ruler-subject
  • Father-son
  • Husband-wife
  • Elder-younger
  • Friend-friend
• Promotes harmony, filial piety (respecting elders), and education.
• Emperors used Confucianism to legitimize their rule through the idea of the “Mandate of Heaven.”

Dynasties & Trade Timeline

Yuan Dynasty (Mongol Rule) — 1271–1368

• Mongols ruled China as “barbarians.”
• The economy thrived, but Confucian exams were paused.
• Lost the “Mandate of Heaven” due to flooding and chaos.

Ming Dynasty — 1368–1644

• Replaced the Mongols, promoted a self-sufficient farming society.
• Profited from world trade, especially in silk and porcelain.
• Gained silver from the New World via trade.
• Later suffered from corruption, weak emperors, and rebellions.

Qing Dynasty — 1644–1912

• Ruled by Manchurians (not ethnically Han Chinese).
• Used Confucian systems and a strong military to rule.
• Expanded the empire: Tibet, Vietnam, Burma paid tribute.
• The Grand Council and bureaucracy grew; legal codes were created.

Silver Economy

• Global silver flowed into China from Europe and the Americas.
• Silver was the primary form of tax payment.
• Created an economic imbalance with the West.

European Trade & Diplomacy

Portuguese in Macao (1557)

• The Portuguese were allowed in a small, supervised trading area (Macao).
• Jesuit missionaries adopted Chinese customs.

Canton System (1700s)

• Only allowed Westerners to trade in one city (Canton).
• Westerners could only stay for 5 months per year.
• No women or families were allowed.
• Chinese merchants (Cohong) controlled trade, creating an imbalance.

Macartney Mission (1792–93)

• The British tried to open more ports and improve trade.
• Brought over 600 gifts but were rejected.
• Emperor Qianlong stated, “We have all we need” and rejected Western goods.
• Saw the British as “tribute bearers,” not equals.

Opium Wars & Unequal Treaties

Opium Trade Plan

• The British grew opium in India and exported it to China to fix the trade imbalance.
• Millions became addicted (officials, students, soldiers, etc.).
• Commissioner Lin Zexu tried to stop it with rehab centers, anti-opium policies, and a letter to Queen Victoria.
• Opium was dumped into the sea, leading to the Opium War (1839–42).

Treaty of Nanjing (1842)

• Ended the Canton system.
• Britain gained Hong Kong, 5 ports, and $21M$ indemnity.
• Led to “Unequal treaties” (Treaty of Bogue), where Westerners got special privileges like extraterritoriality.

China’s Internal Struggles

Taiping Rebellion (1850–64)

• Led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be Jesus' brother.
• Wanted land reform and lower taxes.
• 20–30 million died.
• The government became too weak to collect taxes.

Second Opium War (1856–58)

• More ports were opened.
• The British destroyed the emperor’s summer palace.
• Foreigners were allowed to buy land, and missionaries were protected.

Spheres of Influence (by 1900)

• Western powers took port cities with long-term leases.
  • France: Vietnam
  • Russia: northern China
  • Japan: Korea, Taiwan

China’s Response

Self-Strengthening Movement (1860s–70s)

• Tried to modernize while keeping traditions.
• Built factories, arsenals, coal mines, schools, etc.
• Updated the exam system.

Boxer Rebellion (1898–1901)

• Anti-foreign uprising by the "Righteous and Harmonious Fists".
• Attacked embassies in Beijing.
• Crushed by international forces, leading to more indemnities.

Nationalism Rises

• Disillusionment with the Qing Dynasty.
• Clubs & groups formed to explore new political paths.
• Admired Western science, tech, and politics.
• Led to the fall of the Qing in 1911.

Final Takeaways for Your Exam

• Understand how Confucianism shaped society and how it interacted with trade.
• Know the role of silver and opium in shaping China’s foreign policy.
• Recognize the key treaties and rebellions that weakened China.
• Remember that China’s refusal to open up led to Western force and eventual reform.

Republican Revolution (1911)

• Qing (Manchu) Dynasty fell.
• Sun Yat-sen (Christian + Western-educated) started the Kuomintang (KMT) party.
• China became a republic, but chaos followed.

Warlord Era (1916–1928)

• China was divided; warlords fought each other.
• Japan and other countries (U.S., Europe) took advantage.
• Sun Yat-sen got help from Russia, KMT split into right (rich) and left (communists).

World War I & After

• Japan forced unfair deals (21 Demands) on China.
• China didn't get land back after WWI.
• Japan took German territory in China.

Japanese Invasion (1937–1945)

• Japan invaded and committed atrocities (like the Rape of Nanjing).
• Communists + Nationalists in China temporarily united to fight Japan.

Civil War & Communism

• Mao Zedong (Communist) vs. Chiang Kai-shek (Nationalist).
• Communists won in 1949; Nationalists fled to Taiwan.

Life Under Mao

• Great Leap Forward: tried to make China rich quickly, leading to famine and $14+$ million deaths.
• Cultural Revolution (1966): Mao got young people (Red Guards) to attack “old ways.”

Foreign Relations

• Mao split with the Soviet Union.
• Helped North Korea + Vietnam in wars.
• Made nuclear weapons in 1964.
• Joined UN Security Council in 1971.
• Opened relations with the U.S. (Nixon in 1972).

After Mao

• Mao died in 1976.
• China grew rapidly but still struggles with pollution, Tibet, and unequal gender ratios.

Japan: Rise of a New Asian Power

Early Japan

• Many islands, mountains, and rivers.
• Shinto religion (nature spirits) + Buddhism.
• Borrowed from China but kept its own style.

Feudal Japan

• Samurai (warriors) served Daimyo (lords).
• Shogun = real ruler; Emperor had little power.
• Tokugawa Shoguns controlled all Daimyo with strict rules.
• Christianity came with the Portuguese but was later banned.

Japan Closes Itself (Sakoku)

• 1630s: Japan shut itself off from the world (no foreigners or travel).
• Dutch were the only Europeans allowed to trade (on a small island).

U.S. Opens Japan (1853)

• Commodore Perry forced Japan to open trade.
• Japan had to sign unequal treaties (no tariffs, U.S. got special rights).

Meiji Restoration (1868)

• Shogun lost power; Emperor "restored" but mostly a symbol.
• Japan copied Western ideas (military, tech, education).
• Rapid modernization; the economy improved (big businesses called zaibatsu).
• Poor people suffered a lot.

World Power

• Beat Russia in war (1904–05), took Korea, Taiwan, and Manchuria.
• Became a world empire.

Pacific War (1930s–1945)

• Japan took more land in Asia.
• 1941: Attacked Pearl Harbor, leading the U.S. to join WWII.
• Claimed to free Asia but really colonized it (forced labor and “comfort women”).
• 1945: U.S. dropped 2 atomic bombs, and Japan surrendered.

U.S. Occupation (1945–1952)

• Japan changed: democracy, women’s rights, new constitution.
• Banned war (Article 9), and the U.S. protected Japan in the Cold War.
• The U.S. gave money and opened markets to help Japan grow.

Post-War Japan

• Japan’s economy boomed.
• Became one of the richest countries in the world by the 1980s.

Islam Basics

• One of the largest religions (25% of the world’s population).
• Most Muslims live outside the Middle East.
• Founded by Prophet Muhammad in 610 CE in Mecca.

Holy Books

• Qur’an = final revelation from God to Muhammad.
• Hadith = sayings and practices of Muhammad.

Five Pillars of Islam

1. Shahada – faith statement
2. Salat – prayer 5x a day
3. Zakat – giving to the poor
4. Fasting – during Ramadan
5. Hajj – pilgrimage to Mecca

Early Caliphates

• Rashidun Caliphs: 1st four leaders after Muhammad.
• Split into Sunni (leader doesn’t have to be a blood relative) and Shia (must be a descendant).

Muslim Expansion

• Spread through conquest and trade.
• Tolerated other religions (dhimmi = protected non-Muslims who paid a tax).

Legacy

• Advanced trade, science, medicine, math.
• Translated texts from Greece, India, and China.
• Banking, contracts, maps, and maritime tools.

Gunpowder Empires

• Ottoman, Safavid (Persia), and Mughal (India).
• Used gunpowder weapons to build big empires.
• Rulers = Sultans (Ottomans) and Shahs (Safavids).

Locations (Ottoman Empire)

• Ottomans ruled: Anatolia, Balkans, North Africa, Middle East

Governance (Ottoman Empire)

• Sultan = ruler + Caliph of Islam
• Used advisors: Grand Vizier (like a prime minister), Pasha (regional governor)
• Millet System: different religions ruled themselves
• Devshirme System: Christian boys taken, trained as soldiers (Janissaries)

Gunpowder Empire Traits

1. Military rule: soldiers = leaders
2. Resources belonged to elite families
3. Laws mixed dynastic, religious, and local traditions

Defensive Developmentalism

• Reforms to defend the empire from Europe
• New taxes, schools, army, and legal system
• Rejected tax farmers (corrupt collectors)
• Schools became more secular

Tanzimat Reforms (1839–1870s)

• Abdul Hamid II tried to modernize the empire
• New secular schools, fairer taxes, new laws
• Gave more rights to non-Muslims
• Later reforms became more autocratic

Young Turks

• Reformers who overthrew Abdul Hamid II in 1908
• Modernized schools, laws, and pushed Turkish nationalism
• One leader: Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk)

WWI & After

• Ottomans sided with Germany and lost the war
• Treaty of Sèvres (1920) broke the empire apart
• Treaty of Lausanne (1923) formed modern Turkey

Mandate System

• Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916): UK & France split Arab lands
  • France: Syria, Lebanon
  • Britain: Iraq, Palestine, Jordan

Ottoman Egypt

• Muhammad Ali (1805) modernized Egypt (army, schools, crops)
• Khedive Ismail built the Suez Canal with European money, leading to debt
• Urabi Revolt (1882) failed, and the British took over Egypt

Partial Independence (Egypt)

• 1922: Egypt declared independent, but the UK still controlled:
  1. Communication
  2. Defense
  3. Foreign interests
  4. Sudan

Persia (Iran) Timeline

• Safavid Empire (1501–1722)
• Qajar Dynasty (1790s–1925)

Rise of the Safavids

• Shah Ismail I founded the Safavid Empire in 1501
• Capital: Tabriz, later moved to Isfahan
• Enforced Shia Islam as the state religion
• Promoted Twelver Shi’ism (belief in 12 Imams, last is hidden)

Shah Abbas I (1587–1629)

• Strengthened the army with gunpowder and slave soldiers
• Recaptured lost territory (e.g., Baghdad)
• Created beautiful architecture in Isfahan
• Traded with Europe and built alliances

Safavid Decline

• Economic crisis: inflation, silk trade mismanagement
• Military crisis: outdated weapons
• Fall: Afghan invasion in 1722 ended Safavid rule

Qajar Persia (1790s–1925)

• Capital: Tehran
• Weak government: sold positions, balanced groups against each other
• Religious leaders (ulema) had power over law

Defensive Developmentalism (Qajar Persia)

• Tried to modernize with schools, railroads, army
• Set up school: Dar al-Funun (1851) to train elites
• But modernization failed due to corruption and lack of money

Foreign Concessions (Qajar Persia)

• Qajar kings gave rights to Europeans for profit
  • Examples:
    • 1872 Reuter Concession (railroads, banks) – canceled
    • 1890 Tobacco Concession – sparked boycott & protests
    • 1901 D’Arcy Oil Concession – British got oil rights, and Persia got little profit

Persian Discontent

• Angry at monarchy, clerics, and foreign control
  • Wanted:
    • Nationalism
    • Secularism
    • Constitutional government

Constitutional Revolution (1906)

• Merchants and religious leaders shut shops and protested
• Created Majlis (parliament), limited the Shah’s power
• Rights and elections were introduced
• Conflict between ulema (wanted Islamic law) and intellectuals (wanted a modern system)

Rise of Reza Khan → Reza Shah (1921–1941)

• Took power by military coup, not election
• 1925: Becomes Shah (Pahlavi Dynasty)
• Ruled with censorship and no opposition parties
• Created a big army, modern education (Tehran University), and industries
• 1935: Persia renamed Iran

Secular Changes (Reza Shah)

• Took land from religious leaders
• Banned Islamic dress codes
• Pushed for Westernization and Iranian nationalism

Oil & Foreign Power (Reza Shah)

• Tried to renegotiate unfair oil deals with the British
• WWII: Allies forced Reza Shah to step down, replaced by his son, Mohammad Reza Shah

Rise of Ayatollah Khomeini

• Criticized the Shah and U.S. influence
• Arrested and exiled in 1963 → sermons smuggled back into Iran
• Became a symbol of opposition

White Revolution (1960s–70s)

• Shah’s reforms: land reform, literacy programs, women’s rights
• Didn't fully succeed—many were still poor

Lead-up to Iranian Revolution

• Protests grew due to:
  • Torture, censorship, arrests (SAVAK)
  • Unequal land reform
  • Anger over the Shah’s Western ties
• 1978–79: Large protests (Black Friday), and the Shah fled

Islamic Republic of Iran (1979)

• Khomeini returned and held a referendum → 98% voted for Islamic Republic
• Created:
  • Revolutionary Council
  • Komitehs (committees)
  • New Constitution (Dec 1979)

Power Structure Today (Iran)

• Supreme Leader: Ayatollah (currently Ali Khamenei)
• Guardian Council: Powerful religious-political group
• Presidents: Khatami, Ahmadinejad, Rouhani

U.S. & Iran

• 1979 Hostage Crisis: 444 days, American Embassy seized
• The U.S. froze assets and broke ties
• 2015: Nuclear Deal (JCPOA) with Obama
• 2018: Trump pulled out → tensions resumed

Early Russian Empire

Geography & Religion

• Russia = largest country in the world by 1800
• Adopted Orthodox Christianity (9th century, Vladimir I)

Mongol Rule (1236–1400s)

• Mongols ruled indirectly, demanding tribute (money)
• Local princes became tax collectors

End of Mongol Rule

• Ivan III (Ivan the Great) stopped paying Mongols → Moscow grew
• 1480: Russia freed itself from Mongol control

Economy & Society

• Farming = main job (low productivity)
• Serfs tied to land and noble owners (like slaves)
• 1649: serfdom legalized; lasted until 1861

Government

• Tsars (like kings), ruled with absolute power
• Chose local leaders and made laws
• Tsar = head of state + church

Time of Troubles (1605–1613)

• Chaos after Tsar Feodor died
• Polish invasion & rebellions
• 1613: Romanov Dynasty begins

Peter the Great (1689–1725)

• Strong Ruler
  • Used secret police, crushed rebellions
  • Won land from Sweden (Baltic Sea)
• Selective Westernization
  • Changed military to be more like the West
  • Built navy and moved capital to St. Petersburg
  • Forced nobles to shave beards and wear Western clothes
  • Opened schools, taxed people heavily

Catherine the Great (1762–1796)

• Continued Peter’s reforms
• Brought more Western culture, but most Russians stayed poor farmers

Russian Conservatism

• Tsars feared revolution; crushed protests
• Secret police and censorship grew under Nicholas I

Crimean War (1853)

• Russia lost to Britain & France → showed Russia was behind the West
• Result = end of serfdom

Emancipation of Serfs (1861)

• Serfs got land but had to pay high taxes
• Still poor, no freedom to move
• The urban working class began to grow

Trans-Siberian Railroad (1891–1916)

• Connected East to West Russia
• Helped trade and grain exports
• Funded by foreign money

Industrialization (Russia)

• Heavy industry (steel, coal, oil)
• 50% of factories were foreign-owned
• Led to social unrest → rise of Marxism

Explosive Changes (Russia)

• The middle class and workers wanted rights
• Marxism: rich vs. poor = inevitable revolution
• Communism = no classes, no private property

1905 Revolution (Russia)

• Workers protested → the tsar gave limited freedoms (Duma = fake parliament)

1917 February Revolution

• War losses, food shortages → protests
• Tsar abdicated
• The temporary government failed (still fought WWI, no land reform)

Bolshevik Revolution (October 1917)

• Lenin led radical communists (Bolsheviks)
• Promised land, peace, and bread
• Seized power, ended elections, and started a civil war

Civil War (Reds vs. Whites)

• Reds (Communists) vs. Whites (royalists + foreign countries)
• The Red Army won and brutally crushed the opposition

USSR & Lenin's Rule

• 1923: USSR created (one-party state)
• Land was given to peasants, and factories were nationalized
• Allowed small businesses under the New Economic Policy (NEP)

Stalin's USSR

Collectivization (1928)

• Peasants forced into state-run farms
• Resistance was crushed (kulaks killed or sent to labor camps)
• Led to famine (millions died)

Industrialization (5-Year Plans)

• Massive growth in factories, metal, and electricity
• Became the 3rd most industrialized nation

The Great Purge (1936–1938)

• Stalin killed or jailed anyone he suspected
• Thousands falsely confessed crimes
• Absolute control over government and people

USSR Established (1923)

• Created a federal system, but the Communist Party controlled everything
• Much more authoritarian than Tsarist Russia

Stalin’s Plans

• Collectivization (1928): combined farms → caused famine (1932–33)
• Industrialization (1937): 5-year plans → Russia became the world’s #3 industrial power

Soviet-German Pact (1939)

• Secret deal to divide Eastern Europe (e.g., Poland, Baltic states)
• Stalin purged military leaders → weakened the USSR against Nazis

Hitler Invades (1941)

• The USSR suffers huge losses
• Industry moved east (Ural Mountains)
• The Red Army fights back by 1943

Yalta Conference (1945)

• Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt agreed to:
  1. Divide Germany into zones
  2. Free elections in Eastern Europe
  3. The USSR joins the war against Japan
  4. Form the United Nations (UN)

Cold War Overview (1945–1991)

US Goals

• Spread democracy
• Stop communism (containment)
• Open world markets for U.S. goods

USSR Goals

• Protect borders (friendly neighbors)
• Spread communism
• Prevent German resurgence

Cold War Highlights

Iron Curtain & Germany Split

• Berlin divided into East (USSR) and West (Allies)
• The Berlin Wall was built in 1961 to stop East Germans from fleeing

Truman Doctrine (1947)

• The US helps stop communism in Europe (Greece & Turkey get $400M$)

Marshall Plan (1947)

• The US gave $13.3 billion$ to rebuild Europe to resist communism

NATO (1949)

• Military alliance: US + Western Europe

Warsaw Pact (1955–1991)

• Soviet response to NATO
• Military and economic ties with Eastern Europe
• The USSR dominated the Eastern Bloc

Global Communism

• USSR and China: largest communist nations
• Others: North Korea, Vietnam, Cuba, Afghanistan
• Communist parties also existed in France, Italy, and Greece
• The US experienced McCarthyism – fear of communists in the government

Cold War’s “Hot Wars”

• Third World countries (Africa, Asia, Latin America) courted by both US & USSR
  1. Korea (1950–1953): North invades South → war ends in stalemate
  2. Vietnam (ended 1975): North wins → unified communist country
  3. Afghanistan (1978–1989): USSR invades to support a communist regime
  4. Cuba:
     • 1959: Fidel Castro takes power
     • 1961: Bay of Pigs (failed US invasion)
     • 1962: Cuban Missile Crisis – USSR removes missiles, and the US promises not to invade

Arms & Space Race

Nuclear Arms Race

• 1945: The US develops the bomb
• 1949: The USSR follows
• Other nations: UK, France, China
• By the 1980s: nearly 60,000 nuclear warheads

Space Race

• 1957: The USSR launches Sputnik 1
• 1961: The USSR sends Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space
• 1969: The US wins the race by landing Apollo 11 on the moon

Beginning of the End (1970s–1991) [USSR]

Economic Problems in the USSR

• The cost of the military, space race, and foreign aid
• Declining economy, poor-quality goods, food shortages

Détente (1970s)

• Easing of tensions: US (Nixon) and USSR (Brezhnev)
• Ended with the USSR invasion of Afghanistan

Mikhail Gorbachev (1985–1991)

• Perestroika (“restructuring”) - Allowed private business and foreign investment
• Glasnost (“openness”) - Freedom of speech and press. Released banned books, exposed corruption, admitted Stalin’s crimes.
• Democratization - Created new parliament. Cut military and signed arms deals (INF Treaty 1987).

Collapse of Communism & Soviet Union

1989–1991 Events:

• 1989: The Berlin Wall falls
• 1990–91: Eastern European countries break from communism
• Baltic States (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia) demand independence
• The USSR no longer intervenes

1991: The USSR Dissolves

• 15 countries declared independence
• Dec 8, 1991: The Soviet Union ceases to exist

Third World Cold War Conflicts

• The USSR & USA competed for influence
• Wars:
  • Korea (1950), Vietnam (1975), Afghanistan (1978–1989), Cuba (1962 Missile Crisis)
• Many countries remained non-aligned, refusing to choose sides

Arms & Space Race

• Nuclear Arms Race:
  • US: 1945 | USSR: 1949 | Total: 60,000+ warheads
• Space Race:
  • USSR launched Sputnik (1957) + first man (1961)
  • The US won with moon landing (1969)

Decline of the USSR (1970s–1991)

• High costs: weapons, space, helping allies
• Poor economy: shortages, long lines, low quality
• Détente: eased US–USSR tensions under Nixon/Brezhnev
• Ended when the USSR invaded Afghanistan

Gorbachev's Reforms (1985)

• Perestroika: economic restructuring (allowed private biz)
• Glasnost: openness (free speech, press, elections)
• Reforms weakened Communist Party power

Collapse of the USSR

• 1989: Berlin Wall falls
• 1991: The USSR dissolves into 15 nations
• The Cold War ends
• Communist governments fall across Eastern Europe

International Migration (2020)

• $281$ million migrants (~$3.6$% of the world population)
• Top migrant destinations:
  • Europe: $86.7M$
  • Asia: $85.6M$
  • North America: $58.7M$ ($15.7$% of its pop.)

Top Origin Countries for Migration

• India ($17.9M$), Mexico, Russia, China, Syria

Remittances

• Migrants sent $794$ billion home (2022)
• India = top recipient since 1990

Displacement (2020)

• $89.4M$ displaced (conflict, violence, disasters)
• $26.4M$ refugees living outside birth countries

Historical Migration (1840–1940)

• $170$ million moved due to cheap steam travel

3 Main Migration Currents:

1. To Americas (Europe & Middle East) → $55–60M$
2. To Southeast Asia & Indian Ocean (India, China) → $45–55M$
3. To Manchuria & Central Asia → $45–55M$

Smaller Migration Flows:

• Irish, Italians, Germans, Canadians → US
• Coolies = indentured workers from Asia to Africa, the Caribbean, etc.

Neo-Europe: Settler Colonies

• US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
• Europeans created Western-style governments and economies

Course Topics Recap

• Atlantic Revolutions (US, France, Haiti, Latin America)
• Industrial Revolution
• Colonization & Decolonization
• Middle East, China, Japan, USSR history
• Migration patterns
• Environmental change

Climate Change

Human Causes

• Greenhouse gases:
  • $CO₂$, methane, nitrous oxide, etc.
  • Come from burning fossil fuels, farming, cars, etc.
• Agriculture causes ~25% of $CO₂$ emissions

Natural Causes

• Volcanic eruptions
• Ocean currents
• Solar radiation

Effects of Climate Change

• Global temperatures up $1°C$ since 1900
• Sea level rise: +$7–8$ inches since 1900
• Changing weather, melting glaciers, ocean circulation issues