Napoleon Bonaparte Lecture Notes
Napoleon Bonaparte
Background and Corsican Origins
Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769 on the island of Corsica, not in France.
In 1768, one year before Napoleon's birth, Corsica was transferred from Genoa to French control.
His first language was Corsican, which is closer to Italian than French, and he always spoke French with an accent.
Initially, he identified as Corsican and was interested in Corsican independence, making him an outsider in French society.
Impact of the French Revolution
The French Revolution was crucial to Napoleon's rise; without it, his ascent would have been impossible.
His family secured documents proving their Corsican nobility, which allowed Napoleon to attend a French military academy.
The revolution eliminated old hierarchies based on birth, emphasizing talent and ability, which Napoleon possessed in abundance.
Early Military Career
Napoleon embraced the ideals of the French Revolution and was drawn to the Jacobin faction.
During the civil war in France (1793-1794), Girondins, supported by the British Navy, controlled Toulon.
Napoleon, a captain of artillery, devised a plan to ring Toulon with artillery, forcing the British withdrawal and Girondin surrender.
As a result, he was promoted to general at the age of 24.
Thermidorian Reaction and Survival
The Jacobins fell in Thermidor (July 1794), endangering anyone associated with them.
Napoleon was arrested but was released due to being seen as a nonpolitical general by the new government.
His career trajectory was uncertain, but he was fortunate to be in the right place at the right time.
Saving the Directory
During the directory era, a royalist rebellion occurred in 1795, aiming to overthrow the government.
Napoleon was called upon to defend the directory and used artillery to suppress the rebels.
He used "a whiff of grapeshot," a cruel weapon using shards of metal as ammunition, for crowd control.
This action made him a rising star within the directory.
Relationship with Josephine
Napoleon met Josephine, a sensual woman from the Caribbean who had lost her family's fortune and was a widow.
Josephine had numerous lovers who supported her lifestyle, including Barras, one of the directors.
Barras encouraged the relationship between Napoleon and Josephine, as he was tiring of her.
Josephine initially spurned Napoleon's advances but eventually married him reluctantly.
Napoleon was deeply in love with Josephine, while she was not initially as invested.
Napoleon led the French army into Italy in 1796, and Josephine did not want to join him, preferring to stay in Paris with a current lover.
The directory government ordered Josephine to join Napoleon in Italy, and she reluctantly complied, bringing her lover disguised as a French officer.
While in Egypt, Napoleon learned of Josephine's infidelity but decided against divorce to avoid political scandal.
They eventually reconciled, with Napoleon's love diminishing but never disappearing, and Josephine's love increasing over time.
In 1809, Napoleon divorced Josephine to secure an heir to the throne, not due to infidelity.
Upon hearing of Josephine's death in exile, Napoleon showed rare emotion, indicating his enduring affection for her.
Italian Campaign and Plunder
Napoleon led a relatively small French army into Northern Italy in 1796.
Northern Italy was not a unified nation but consisted of several independent states, such as the Republic of Venice and the Kingdom of Sardinia.
Napoleon faced the Austrians and achieved remarkable victories, conquering Northern Italy and turning it into satellite republics.
He plundered vast amounts of wealth from Northern Italy, enriching the French government.
Much of the Italian art plundered by Napoleon's forces remains in the Louvre Museum in Paris.
Egyptian Campaign
In 1798, Napoleon chose to invade Egypt, which was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
Egypt was strategically important as a gateway to the Indian Ocean and British possessions in India.
Napoleon's invasion indirectly struck at British interests by drawing attention to the significance of Egypt.
The campaign led to the beginning of Egyptology with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone.
The Rosetta Stone
The Rosetta Stone contained a royal proclamation in three scripts: Greek, demotic, and ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.
It unlocked the secrets of Egyptian hieroglyphics, allowing scholars to decipher the ancient Egyptian language.
Without the Rosetta Stone, understanding hieroglyphics would have been nearly impossible.
The stone was discovered in the Egyptian town of Rosetta.
The Rosetta Stone is currently located in the British Museum in London because the French forces surrendered it to the British.
French scholars made copies of the stone before turning it over to the British, and Champollion was the first to make significant gains in deciphering the hieroglyphics.
Defeat in Egypt and Return to France
Napoleon was successful on land in the Middle East but faced naval defeat.
Admiral Horatio Nelson led the British Navy to victory at the Battle of the Nile, destroying the French fleet.
Napoleon abandoned his forces in Egypt and returned to France, sensing political opportunities.
He left his army behind, leading to their surrender to the British.
Napoleon returned to France in 1799 and became involved in a coup d'etat.
Coup d'Etat and the Consulate
Napoleon was brought into the coup by Emmanuel Sieyès, who sought to enhance his own authority.
Napoleon helped seize power from the directory but then pushed Sieyès aside, establishing his own government.
In 1799, the French revolutionary decade ended, and Napoleon established a dictatorship called the consulate, taking the title of first consul.
Consul for Life and Plebiscites
In 1802, Napoleon became consul for life through a plebiscite, a yes or no vote on a public question.
He understood that the French people wanted stable, secure government after ten years of revolution.
The plebiscites allowed Napoleon to tap into the sense of involvement by allowing them to vote.
Emperor of the French
In 1804, Napoleon declared himself emperor through another plebiscite, a controversial step after the revolution.
Though controversial, this was not a restoration of the old regime.
Napoleon claimed the title based on the will of the French people, not divine right.
Coronation
Napoleon's coronation took place at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris.
Napoleon took the crown from Pope Pius VII and placed it on his own head to assert his authority came from his own achievements and the will of the French people.
He then crowned his wife Josephine as empress.
Napoleon's sisters carried Josephine's train but intentionally dropped it, displaying their resentment.
Napoleon's mother did not attend the ceremony but was included in the painting by Jacques-Louis David, in which she was placed in the center.
Creation of a New Nobility
Napoleon created a new nobility, granting titles to family members and those who served his regime.
These titles were not hereditary, and nobility did not bring tax-exempt status or special privileges.
Napoleon created a monarchy reshaped by the ideals of the French Revolution.
Domestic Policies and Reforms
Napoleon attempted to address the divisions caused by the French Revolution.
He offered amnesty to the émigrés, inviting them to return to France and support his regime.
He also reached out to former Jacobins, offering them administrative posts in exchange for loyalty.
Concordat with the Catholic Church
In 1801, Napoleon signed a concordat with the Catholic Church under Pope Pius VII.
This agreement gave Napoleon recognition by the Catholic Church, ending the religious civil war.
Napoleon allowed Catholic worship to take place in France again but did not restore Catholicism to its pre-revolution status.
Clergy still had to swear an oath to the French state, and religious toleration was maintained.
The Catholic Church did not regain its lands that had been sold off during the revolution.
Economic Policies
Napoleon established a national bank, the Bank of France, to manage government debt and control interest rates.
He also established a solid currency known as the Franc.
Educational Reforms
Napoleon established lycées, or secondary schools, and the Imperial University to train the new elite of his empire.
These institutions were public and merit-based, marking the government's increased role in education.
Louisiana Purchase
Napoleon sold the Louisiana territory to the United States under President Thomas Jefferson for $11,000,000.
This decision was influenced by the rebellion in Saint-Domingue (Haiti), a French colony vital for sugar production.
Napoleon's attempt to reimpose slavery in Saint-Domingue led to renewed rebellion, and he decided to abandon overseas empire.
The sale transformed the history of the United States, removing a powerful European power from its western border.
Napoleonic Code
Napoleon considered the introduction of the Napoleonic Code his greatest achievement.
The code standardized French law and is still at the center of French law today.
Key concepts included equality of all in the eyes of the law, freedom of religion, and freedom to work in any occupation.
However, the code treated women with extreme harshness, removing their rights to own property and initiate divorce.
Religious Toleration
Napoleon championed religious toleration, lifting religious restrictions wherever French armies went.
French forces tore down the gates of the Venetian ghetto, ending discrimination against Venetian Jews.
Repressive Measures
Napoleon's regime was also repressive, with a secret police under Joseph Fouché.
The government implemented strict censorship, arrested political opponents, and murdered the Duke of Enghien, a cousin of Louis XVI.
The Duke of Enghien who was potentially not directly involved in anti-Napoleonic conspiracies, was kidnapped, given a one-hour trial, and shot as a warning to others.
This act led to Napoleon being seen as a tyrant throughout Europe.
Napoleonic Wars
From 1803 to 1815, France was at war under Napoleon.
The Treaty of Amiens was a brief peace between Britain and France in 1802.
By 1805, Napoleon planned to invade the British Isles but faced the superior British Navy.
Battle of Trafalgar
Admiral Horatio Nelson led the British fleet against a combined French and Spanish force at the Battle of Trafalgar.
The British crossed the line instead of lining up in traditional fashion, maneuvering against the Spanish and French ships, ultimately shattering the British enemies.
The British won a decisive victory, preventing any invasion of the British Isles.
Nelson was killed during the battle but was celebrated as a hero in Britain.
Trafalgar Square in London features Nelson's Column and lions made from captured French and Spanish cannons.
Austerlitz and Military Innovations
Austerlitz was arguably Napoleon's most noted battle, involving three emperors.
Napoleon implemented the corps, a mini army integrated with infantry, artillery, and cavalry.
This structure allowed for much greater flexibility, giving Napoleon an edge over his opponents.
Victories and Humiliations
Napoleon won further victories, including the Battle of Jena, where he shattered the Prussian army.
He humiliated the Prussians by marching his troops into Berlin under the Brandenburg Gate.
Satellite States
Napoleon established a series of satellite states throughout Europe, ruled by his relatives or generals.
These states were required to implement French institutions, such as the Napoleonic Code.
However, the satellites also had to pay higher taxes and provide soldiers for Napoleon's armies.
Continental System
Napoleon implemented the continental system in 1806 to blockade Great Britain economically.
All trade between the continent and Britain was prohibited.
However, the system brought economic problems throughout the Napoleonic empire and strained relations with Russia.
Invasion of Spain
In 1808, Napoleon invaded Portugal, requiring him to go through Spain.
Napoleon decided to make Spain a part of the French empire, leading to popular uprisings.
The May 2 uprising in Madrid was followed by French troops shooting civilians, depicted in Goya's painting "The Third of May 1808".
The Spanish fought as guerrillas, and Napoleon referred to the conflict as his "Spanish ulcer."
Divorce from Josephine and Marriage to Marie Louise
In 1809, Napoleon divorced Josephine to secure an heir.
He married Marie Louise, a member of the Habsburg family, to marry into one of the great dynastic families of Europe.
They had a son who was given the title King of Rome.
Invasion of Russia
In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia with an army of 600,000 men.
The Russians retreated and refused to engage in decisive battle until Borodino, while devastating the land.
Napoleon reached Moscow, but the city was set on fire.
The retreat from Moscow resulted in one of the most brutal military disasters in history, reducing Napoleon's army to about 60,000 survivors.
Defeat and Abdication
After the disastrous Russian campaign, a European-wide coalition formed against Napoleon.
At the Battle of the Nations (Leipzig) in 1813, Napoleon was defeated and forced to withdraw into French borders.
In 1814, Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to the island of Elba.
Restoration of the Bourbons
After Napoleon's abdication, the Bourbon dynasty was restored in France with Louis XVIII.
Napoleon was allowed to keep the title of emperor and take a thousand soldiers with him to Elba.
The Hundred Days
Napoleon escaped from Elba and landed in the South of France, beginning the "Hundred Days."
Marshal Ney, sent to capture Napoleon, joined him instead.
Louis XVIII fled, and Napoleon was back in charge.
Battle of Waterloo
The victorious allies formed a fighting force, and at Waterloo (in modern Belgium), Napoleon's forces were defeated by an Anglo-Prussian army under the Duke of Wellington.
Napoleon surrendered and was exiled to Saint Helena, a remote island in the Atlantic, where he lived until his death in 1821.
Legacy
In his final years, Napoleon wrote about his life and legacy, sparking debate in France.
Some saw him as a lawgiver and champion of the enlightenment, while others saw him as a destroyer of the French Revolution.
Napoleon's legacy continued to influence French life throughout the nineteenth century.
French author Balzac said: "After God, comes Napoleon"