Study Notes on Global and Regional Developments Since 1945

Unit 5: Global and Regional Developments Since 1945
5.1 The United Nations Organization: Formation, Mission, Principles and Achievements

  • The United Nations (UN)

    • Established in 1945.

    • Currently has 193 UN member states.

    • Predecessor was the League of Nations (LN), which existed between 1926 and 1946 but failed to prevent global war due to several weaknesses:

    • Inability of powerful governments to join, notably the US.

    • Members' hesitance to denounce aggression from Japan, Italy, and Germany in the 1930s.

The Purpose/ Goals of The UN

  • The UN encompasses five main goals:

    1. To maintain international peace and security.

    2. To foster friendly relations among nations.

    3. To collaborate in resolving international economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems.

    4. To promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

    5. To protect the Earth and its environment.

Essential Principles

  • The organization is based on several core principles:

    • Sovereign equality of its members.

    • Disputes should be settled through peaceful means.

    • Members must refrain from threat or use of force against UN purposes.

    • Members should assist the UN in any enforcement actions based on the Charter.

    • Principle of non-intervention in domestic matters of any state.

Official Languages

  • The UN has six official languages:

    • Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish.

    • Initially, five official languages were chosen based on the languages of the permanent members of the Security Council, with Spanish included for its prevalence.

    • Arabic added in 1973.

The Timeline of the History of the United Nations

  • August 1941: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter.

  • January 1, 1942: 26 countries signed the Declaration by the United Nations outlining war aims of the Allied powers, during which the name "United Nations" was first used.

  • October-December 1943: The UN idea was declared at conferences in Moscow and Tehran.

  • September 1944: The Big Four (U.S., Britain, Soviet Union, China) met at Dumbarton Oaks to draft the UN Charter.

  • June 26, 1945: The UN Charter was signed in San Francisco by representatives of 50 nations; with Poland signing later, increasing the total to 51 original signatories.

The Structure of the UN

  • The UN has six main organs:

    1. The General Assembly:

    • Composed of representatives from all member nations.

    • Each nation has one vote.

    • Meeting occurs once a year to discuss problems, consider budgets, and elect members of the Security Council.

    1. Security Council:

    • Charged with maintaining peace and security among nations.

    • The most powerful organ of the UN, with decisions termed UN Security Council Resolutions.

    • Composed of five permanent members (U.S., Britain, France, Russia, China) and ten non-permanent members elected for two years by the General Assembly.

    • Permanent members possess the veto power.

    1. The Secretariat:

    • Headed by the Secretary-General, consisting of many employees.

    • Responsibilities include resolving disputes, administering peacekeeping operations, organizing conferences, and consulting member governments.

    1. Trusteeship Council:

    • Aims to assist countries under foreign rule to achieve independence.

    • Managed 11 Trust Territories after WWII, all of which gained independence by 1994.

    1. International Court of Justice:

    • Principal judicial organ of the UN, based in The Hague, Netherlands, composed of 15 judges elected by the General Assembly.

    1. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC):

    • Assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development.

5.2 The Rise of the Superpowers and the Beginning of the Cold War

  • US-Soviet Relations during WWII:

    • Tensions escalated between the Soviet Union and the Western Powers from 1945 to 1947, as Stalin’s ambitions became apparent.

    • Western nations feared that communists sought to dominate Europe.

    • Post-WWII led to the emergence of two superpowers:

    • USA: Remained the sole power with atomic weapons post-Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.

    • USSR: Suffered significant wartime losses (20 million deaths) and extensive destruction of industry and agriculture.

  • Joseph Stalin’s Measures:

    • Aimed to protect the USSR through the establishment of satellite nations in Eastern Europe.

    • Countries like Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary were liberated and occupied, instituting communist regimes.

    • The suppression of opposing groups led to the establishment of European People's Democracies (Soviet Satellites) under Soviet control.

  • Iron Curtain:

    • The term, coined by Winston Churchill in 1946, defined the political boundary that separated the East and West Europe until the end of the Cold War in 1991.

Cold War Characteristics

  • Defined as a state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition.

  • The two superpowers (USA & USSR) avoided direct warfare, thus termed the Cold War.

  • Western Interpretation: Blamed Russia, asserting Stalin aimed to create a Soviet empire.

  • Alternative Historical Views: Some historians attribute Cold War causation to misunderstandings between US and Soviet leaders.

Fundamental Differences and Strategies during the Cold War

  • Superpowers employed various strategies: A. Arms Race: Continuous competition in nuclear and conventional weapons. B. Espionage: Use of spies for intelligence gathering. C. Propaganda: Dissemination of information to sway public opinion. D. Military Alliances:

    • NATO was formed for the U.S. and its Western allies.

    • The Warsaw Pact was established by the USSR and its satellites.
      E. Aid Programs: Efforts to expand influence by providing aid to underdeveloped nations.
      F. Proxy Wars: Armed conflicts involving states and groups representing the superpowers' interests.

Response of the West

  • The Truman Doctrine:

    • Announced in March 1947, it aimed to contain the spread of communism.

    • The U.S. provided $400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey to counter communist threats.

  • Containment Strategy:

    • Initiated by George Kennan, aiming to prevent the expansion of communism.

  • The Marshall Plan:

    • Proposed in 1947 by Secretary of State George Marshall to aid Europe’s recovery post-war.

    • The U.S. allocated $17 billion to assist 16 European countries; however, it was rejected by the Soviet Union, which termed it Dollar Imperialism.

Division of Germany Post-WWII

  • Occupying powers divided Germany into four zones: Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States.

    • In January 1948, Britain and the U.S. merged their zones into Bizonia, later expanded to Trizonia with France in April 1949.

  • Berlin Blockade (June 1948 - May 1949):

    • Imposed by Stalin, restricting access to West Berlin, leading to the Berlin Airlift, which successfully supplied the city.

    • Resulted in the division of Germany into:

    • German Federal Republic (FRG): Established in August 1949 as West Germany.

    • German Democratic Republic (GDR): Established on October 7, 1949 as East Germany.

Military Blocs and the Arms Race

  • NATO founded in April 1949 due to concerns over Soviet military actions.

    • Included 12 nations originally, with Greece and Turkey joining in 1952 and West Germany in 1955.

  • Warsaw Pact formed in May 1955 as a response from the Soviet bloc.

  • Arms Race focused on acquiring and improving military capabilities, including nuclear weapons, with significant developments in the 1950s.

    • Timeline Highlights:

    • 1952: U.S. explodes the Hydrogen bomb.

    • 1953: Soviets create their Hydrogen bomb.

    • 1957: USSR launches first ICBM.

    • 1957: First artificial satellite, Sputnik.

  • The arms race heightened global tensions and reduced investment in productive capacities, adversely impacting international relations.

5.3 Situations in Asia During the Cold War: Japan, Korea, China, Vietnam

  • Japan's Recovery:

    • Post-WWII Japan was significantly aided by U.S. economic support, leading to an impressive recovery and emergence as a major industrial power.

    • By 1985, Japan became the world's second-largest industrial power.

  • China's Civil War:

    • Post-WWII, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) led by Mao Zedong emerged victorious over the Nationalists (KMT) led by Chiang Kai-shek.

    • People's Republic of China (PRC) established in October 1949, leading to the Nationalist retreat to Taiwan.

  • Korean War (1950-1953):

    • Division post-WWII led to the establishment of two Korean governments: Republic of Korea (South) and Democratic People’s Republic (North).

    • North Korea's invasion in June 1950 prompted U.S. and UN intervention; a ceasefire was established in 1953.

    • Consequences included massive destruction in Korea and the strengthening of U.S. support for Taiwan.

  • The Indochina Wars:

    • The First Indochina War (1946-1954) involved the Viet Minh fighting against French colonial rule, culminating in the Geneva Accords and the division of Vietnam.

    • The Second Indochina War (Vietnam War) (1957-1973) focused on U.S. involvement to prevent communism in South Vietnam e.g., strategies like Vietnamization and Rolling Thunder.

    • Vietnam's unification under a communist government occurred in 1975.

5.4 Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

  • Definition: Formed during the Cold War as a states' organization seeking neutrality from the superpower blocs (U.S. and USSR).

  • Significant for its role in the decolonization process across Asia, Africa, and Latin America, with its origin traceable to the Bandung Conference in 1955.

  • Key Leaders include Tito, Nasser, Nehru, Nkrumah, Sukarno.

  • Aims include securing sovereignty and independence from foreign domination and promoting collective non-alignment.

  • Arab-Israeli Conflict:

    • The British mandate in Palestine and the Balfour Declaration created tensions leading to the establishment of Israel in 1948.

    • First Arab-Israeli War (1948): Arab states attacked Israel following its proclamation, resulting in significant territorial and demographic changes.

    • The Suez War (1956) reaffirmed international ambitions in the Middle East, while the Six-Day War (1967) led to Israel acquiring significant territories.

5.6 The Collapse of the Soviet Union

  • Gorbachev's Reforms: Introduced policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) to liberalize and reorganize the Soviet economy.

  • Impact on Eastern Europe: In 1989, nationalist movements led to the overthrow of Soviet-imposed regimes peacefully, except in Romania.

  • The changes paved the way for the dissolution of the Soviet Union and ultimately the end of the Cold War.