Comprehensive Notes on Research Design

Introduction to Research and Research Design

• Topic: Research and Research Design, Analysis & Paradigms

• Course Code: PSYC2009

• Instructor: Milton Gering

  • Contact: U332

  • Email: milton.gering@wits.ac.za

General Questions for Students

• Course outline: Have students read it?

• Assessment 1: Due in a month, check Ulwazi for details.

• Review questions: Scheduled for next week and the following week.

• Upcoming test: At the end of the block.

• Class representative: Malihah, encourage class questions.

What is Research?

• Definition: A systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information (data) to enhance understanding of a phenomenon (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005, p. 2)

The Search for Knowledge and Truth

• Fundamental human needs include:

  • Explore

  • Explain

  • Investigate

  • Understand self and the world

• Research as a tool for fulfilling these needs.

• Striving for knowledge is a human trait.

• Research stems from curiosity, seeking answers to questions.

• Driven process of discovery done systematically (White, 2013)

How Do We Know?

• Core steps in research:

  1. Posing a question

  2. Collecting data

  3. Presenting an answer

• Framework simplifies the research process

True or False? Example Questions

• There is a city called Rome on every continent (False).

• It is against the law to have a pet dog in Iceland (Likely False).

• The longest recorded flight of a chicken is 13 seconds (Potentially True).

Goals of Research

1. Describe human behavior (e.g., anxiety levels in undergraduates)

2. Predict human behavior (e.g., predict anxiety scores)

3. Understand human behavior (e.g., perceptions of anxiety) (Salkind, 2006)

Gaining Understanding

• Gained through:

  • Examining covariation and time-order relationships (e.g., drug effects on behavior).

  • Eliminating alternative causes (e.g., controlling environment while observing drug effects).

What is Research Design?

• Research involves structured observations.

• Research Design defined as a plan or blueprint for scientific investigation to generate knowledge (scientific vs. everyday).

Why Study Research Design?

• Science underpins modern life.

• Understanding the research process fosters critical evaluation skills.

• University material is derived from scientific research.

• Essential for potential future studies (Christensen, 1994; Rosnow & Rosenthal, 2005).

How Will Research Design Help You?

• Stay current with knowledge.

• Assess claims effectively.

• Critically read research findings.

• Develop research protocols.

• Enhance professional practice.

Research Design Overview

• Elements include:

  • Paradigm

  • Problem/Area

  • Research Question

  • Research Design (Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed)

Bigger Picture in Research

• Aim: Utilize diverse methods to produce knowledge.

• Interrelationship among aspects to accomplish the research goal.

Research Design Details

• Decision making about aspects of research.

• Explore strengths and limitations of options.

• Ensure consistency with overarching project goals.

Research Design Type Considerations

• Type of design depends on research purpose and question(s).

• Consistency across research design aspects and the related paradigm is crucial.

Research Designs and Paradigms (Part 2)

• Overview of various research designs

Types of Research Designs

• Quantitative: Experimental, Correlational, Descriptive

• Qualitative: Interpretive and Social Constructionist Approaches

• Mixed Methods: Combines both quantitative and qualitative approaches

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

• Quantitative: Focus on testing hypotheses and relationships between variables

• Qualitative: Emphasizes meaning derived from context and participants' perspectives

Formulating Questions

• Quantitative: Standardized response options to gather numerical data

  • Example: Did you attend any tutorials?

• Qualitative: Open-ended inquiries to gather detailed responses

  • Example: Discuss attendance and its impact on test performance.

Why Conduct Quantitative Research?

• Based on the scientific method and empirical reasoning

• Aims for objective observations and hypothesis testing

• Establishes superiority of one belief over others

Purpose of Qualitative Research

• Emphasizes social context for understanding complexities

• In-depth exploration of few cases leads to insights

• Allows flexibility in research question formulations

Validity of Qualitative Research

• Not unscientific; adheres to specific guidelines for reliability and validity

Common Types of Research

• Experimental: Investigates cause-and-effect (e.g., tutorial attendance and test scores)

• Correlational: Examines relationships between variables (e.g., attendance and achievement)

• Descriptive: Describes characteristics of phenomena (e.g., factors affecting test scores)

• Qualitative: Explores human behavior within social contexts (e.g., perceptions affecting performance)

Understanding Paradigms

• Research designs align with specific paradigms (sets of assumptions) about social reality

Paradigms in Social Research

• Positivist (Quantitative)

  • Focus on objective, stable realities

  • Experimental and hypothesis-driven methods

  • Detached, objective researcher

• Interpretive (Qualitative)

  • Focus on subjective, internal realities

  • Emphasizes understanding through interaction

  • Researchers gain knowledge through participant engagement

• Social Constructionist (Qualitative)

  • Investigates socially constructed realities

  • Emphasizes language and power dynamics in social inquiry

Variability in Paradigms

• Boundaries of paradigms can be blurred, especially between interpretive and constructionist approaches

• Overlapping analytic approaches may occur

Choice of Paradigm

• Different paradigms lead to varied perspectives and research questions

• No definitive scientific method for choosing paradigms

Mixed Methods Research

• Combines different research methods according to context and questions

• Balances generalizability with depth of findings

Example: “Miss Lovely Legs” analysis prompts

• Caption 1 Questions:

  • At what event was this picture taken?

  • Who won the competition?

  • What was the winner’s reaction?

• Caption 2 Questions:

  • Implications for the objectification of women

  • How do these competitions reflect and reproduce patriarchy?

• Caption 3 Questions:

  • What does this picture reflect about the social context of apartheid South Africa?

  • What do the participants’ positioning and identities signify?

What This Example Shows

• Different perspectives lead to varying questions

• Research design as problem solving

• “Perfect” solutions are often not achievable

• Answers depend on the assumptions/decisions made regarding the bigger picture and details

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research Details

The Interpretive Approach described

• Assumes genuine experiences are recognized through interaction

• Promotes understanding within socio-historical contexts

• Acknowledges researchers as primary instruments of research

The Social Constructionist Approach described

• Connects individual experiences to broader social systems

• Views language as constitutive of reality

• Studies deconstruction as a method for understanding

Challenges of Different Paradigms

• Idealism: Reduction to ideas/language

• Relativism: Difficulty defining truth

The Research Process Overview

• Development of a research design appropriate for answering a specific research question.

• Involves essential steps that are interdependent and interrelated, making the research process cyclical rather than strictly linear.

• Important decisions must be made during the research course (Christensen, 1994).

Essential Steps in the Research Process

1. Identify a research problem and review the literature.

2. Decide on the methods and research design to use.

3. Select a sample.

4. Assess the quality of the method, design, and sample.

5. Collect the data.

6. Analyze, interpret, and report the results.

7. Evaluate the research.

Research Proposal Components

• Key questions to consider:

  • What do you want to do?

  • Why do you want to do it?

  • Why is it important?

  • Who has done similar work?

  • How are you going to do it?

Step 1: Identify a Research Problem and Review the Literature

• Process:

  1. Choose a research problem/topic/theme.

  2. Identify the problem.

  3. Review relevant literature and related research.

  4. Formulate the problem fully.

  5. Define each central concept theoretically and operationally.

  6. Reformulate the research problem as a research question and/or testable hypotheses.

Step 2: Decide on the Methods and Research Design

• Methodologies:

  • Quantitative Approach

    • Collect data using chosen methods.

    • Select measurement instruments and data collection methods (e.g., observation, interviews).

  • Qualitative Approach

    • Select specific qualitative method and establish protocols.

Step 3: Select a Sample

• Sampling Methods:

  • Quantitative

    • Determine sample to use.

  • Qualitative

    • Plan sampling strategy including researcher’s role and ethical considerations.

Step 4: Assess the Quality of the Method, Design, and Sample

• Quality Assessment:

  • Quantitative:

    • Ensure internal and external validity.

  • Qualitative:

    • Ensure credibility, dependability, transferability, and confirmability.

    • Conduct a pilot study if necessary.

Step 5: Collect the Data

• Data Collection Process:

  • Quantitative:

    • Execute the selected research design to gather data.

  • Qualitative:

    • Collect data via interviews, focus groups, or other qualitative means.

Step 6: Analyze, Interpret, and Report Results

• Data Analysis:

  • Quantitative:

    • Process and interpret data by reducing to themes or categories.

  • Qualitative:

    • Analyze and interpret findings to draw conclusions.

Types of Research Topics

• Categories of Topics:

  • Topics about groups (e.g., preschool children, police officers).

  • Topics surrounding specific behaviors (e.g., anxiety, bullying).

  • General topics (e.g., job stress, learning, motivation).

Step 2: Identify the Problem

• Research Literature Exploration:

  • Utilize various sources (books, journals, internet) to inform research.

  • Work from previous research while consulting experts.

  • Researching practical problems and serendipity (accidental discoveries).

Step 3: Review Relevant Literature

• Importance of Literature Review:

  • Essential for understanding the problems thoroughly.

  • Involves exploring multiple resources: books, journals, databases, websites, etc.

Step 4: Formulate the Problem Fully

• Research Paradigm Selection:

  • Identify appropriate research paradigms and theoretical frameworks.

  • Narrow down key concepts for qualitative and quantitative research plans.

Step 5: Define Central Concepts

• Constructs and Variables:

  • Constructs: Complex psychological ideas or concepts.

  • Variables: Observable/measurable conditions in research.

Types of Variables

• Independent Variable (IV): Hypothesized cause affecting the dependent variable.

• Dependent Variable (DV): Hypothesized effect impacted by the independent variable.

Example Relationships for IV and DV:

• Does childhood trauma affect emotional dysfunction?

• Does stress influence academic performance?

• Correlate between overeating and obesity.

Extraneous Variables

• Definition and Impact:

  • Unhypothesized causes/effects that can confound research results.

  • Must consider these variables during research design to preserve validity.

Working Definitions Conceptualisation Importance

• Clear definitions are crucial to conduct reliable observations or measurements.

• Definitions can vary and must be contextualized within theoretical frameworks.

Operationalisation Defining Measurement Methods

• Specify methods and processes for collecting data related to research questions.

Example of Research Focus

• Stress and Memory Research:

  • Explore factors affecting memory under acute stress, e.g., using Cold Pressor Test.

Final Steps: Research Questions and Hypotheses

• Criteria and Evaluation:

  • Develop research questions that guide investigations.

  • Construct testable hypotheses based on causality and correlation.

Essential Criteria for Acceptable Hypotheses

1. Agreement with empirical facts.

2. Coherence among components.

3. Simplicity (parsimony).

4. Falsifiability of the hypothesis.

Example of Literature Review

• Mental Health Promotion Research:

  • Insights on social determinants affecting mental health and the need for interdisciplinary approaches to treatment.

ETHICS IN RESEARCH

• Criteria based on ethics statements from:

  • APA: American Psychological Association

  • BPS: British Psychological Society

  • HPCSA: Health Professions Council of South Africa (Professional Board for Psychology)

ETHICAL NORMS AND PRINCIPLES

• Belmont Report (1979)

  1. Respect

     • Informed consent

  2. Beneficence

     • Assessment of risks and benefits

  3. Justice

     • Selection of participants who bear the costs should receive the benefits

S.A. Board for Psychology Code of Conduct

• Competence

• Integrity

• Professional and scientific responsibility

• Respect for human rights and dignity

• Concern for others’ wellbeing

• Social responsibility

ETHICS IN PRACTICE

• Principle of Informed Consent

• Protection & Welfare of Participants

• Use of Deception

• Debriefing of Participants

• Participants’ Right to Withdraw from Research

• Confidentiality & Anonymity of Data

PRINCIPLE OF INFORMED CONSENT

• Researchers must inform participants of obligations/responsibilities before research begins.

• Full explanation of what ‘participation’ involves is necessary.

PROTECTION & WELFARE OF PARTICIPANTS

• Researchers must protect participants from harm, dangers, or stress and inform them of risks involved.

• Contact information or alternative channels for communication should be provided.

• Researchers are responsible for assessing the degree of risk to participants.

USE OF DECEPTION

• Deception must be justified (i.e., evaluate costs and benefits).

• Allowed when:

  • Research objective is significant.

  • Procedure is acceptable/reasonable for participants.

  • Participants can withdraw at any time.

  • Researchers take responsibility for removing negative after-effects.

DEBRIEFING OF PARTICIPANTS

• After data collection, participants should be informed of the research purpose and any deceptive procedures explained.

• All questions should be answered, and effects of the research discussed.

• Researchers should provide participants with educational or beneficial outcomes.

• Address and remove undesirable effects resulting from the research.

PARTICIPANTS’ RIGHT TO WITHDRAW FROM RESEARCH

• Participants must be able to decline or withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.

CONFIDENTIALITY & ANONYMITY OF DATA

• All research information is confidential unless otherwise agreed.

• Confidentiality does not guarantee anonymity.

• Participants have the right to anonymity where possible.

ETHICAL CONCERNS VS. ETHICAL PRACTICES

• Assessing the ethics of a proposed study requires consideration of potential ethical concerns.

• Implementation of ethical practices is the researcher’s responsibility.

• Steps must be taken to address ethical concerns through practical applications of ethical norms.

• Ethics should be integral to every research project; different projects raise different ethical issues.

• Solutions are not universal; they must be tailored to the specifics of each project.

APA ETHICS PRINCIPLES

Unethical Research Examples:

• Nazi Medical Experiments: Experiments on concentration camp prisoners without consent.

• US Govt. Radiation Experiments: Scientists knowingly exposed American citizens to harmful radiation.

• Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment: Assessing untreated syphilis versus treated; withholding effective treatment.

• Milgram’s Experiment: Examined obedience; administering electric shocks to a learner for wrong answers causing extreme distress.

• Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment: Simulated prison environment leading to abuse and early termination.

• Asch’s Line Studies: Tested conformity; participants conformed despite knowing the correct answer.

• Henrietta Lacks: Use of cervical cancer cells for research without her knowledge or consent.

• Other Examples:

  • Carney Landis Facial Expressions Experiment (1924)

  • Monkey Drug Trials (1969)

  • SA Army Aversion Project (1970’s and 1980’s)

Key Reading:

• Knight (2019): Reviews ethics principles relevant for both clinical and non-clinical studies.

Other Ethical Concerns:

• Plagiarism accusation stress test: Procedure designed to induce stress with implications of false plagiarism.

What construct/variable/phenomenon is to be measured?

• Is quantitative or qualitative information required?

• Would closed-ended or open-ended questions be more appropriate?

• Is self-report data appropriate?

• What is the nature of the data that would be collected? How would this link to the proposed analysis of the data?

Lab-Based vs. Field Research

Common methods of collecting data

• Experimental manipulation*

• Naturalistic observation*

• Questionnaires/Tests/Scales (measurement)

• Interviews

• Available data (archives, published material)
  Often an eclectic approach is adopted by researchers, thus ensuring that the limitations of one methodology/approach/data collection method are counterbalanced by the use of others.

QUESTIONNAIRES VS. INTERVIEWS

• There are two forms of survey research

  • Interviews

  • Questionnaires

• Both may contain open-ended or closed-ended questions

• Interviews may be face-to-face or telephonic

• Questionnaires may take the form of a checklist, forced choice, graphic scales or Likert-type items

Questionnaires

Interviews

RESEARCH BASED ON AVAILABLE DATA

• What is research based on available data?

• Defined as data that has been generated for purposes other than those for which you as the researcher are using them e.g. autobiographies, diaries, tombstones etc…

• Also includes historical data and sources of data which are already in existence

Available Data

Criteria for Establishing Causality

1. Covariation

2. Temporal Precedence

3. Non-spuriousness

COVARIATION

• Do X and Y covary / are they mutually related?

• i.e. is the presence (or absence) of X (the cause) actually correlated to the presence (or absence) of Y (the effect)?

• This criterion provides the logical basis of all simple randomised designs and was popularised by the English philosopher, John Stuart Mill

COVARIATION: MILL'S METHODS

| Method of Agreement |