Bioprospecting and Resistance

Author: Abena Dove Osseo-Asare*
Summary:

The rise of pharmaceutical chemistry in Europe during the late 19th century coincided with imperial expansion in Africa.
Strophanthin, a drug derived from the seeds of Strophanthus species, became part of the British Pharmacopoeia in 1898, amidst the use of poisoned arrows against British troops in the Gold Coast.
This study advocates for a global perspective on drug discovery, illustrating how colonization affected the dynamics of pharmaceutical development.

Key Ingredient: The seeds of various Strophanthus species were integral to both the manufacture of poisoned arrows and the pharmaceutical synthesis of strophanthin.
Power Struggles: Control over these plants led to conflicts between colonial authorities and indigenous communities in the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast and Togoland through the 1920s.

1885: Africans maintained control over the Strophanthus species with unrestricted access.
1905: Establishment of a British military presence and the outlawing of poisoned arrows.
World War I Era: Increased international demand for Strophanthus seeds led to an attempt at a European export scheme that ultimately failed.

Incident Overview: In August 1899, a Frafra warrior shot a poisoned arrow striking Sergeant Igala Grunshi of the British forces, leading to immediate medical attention.
Indigenous Remedies: Grunshi requested indigenous antidotes instead of the potassium permanganate offered by British surgeons.
Colonial Interest: The British Colonial War Office was increasingly interested in the medical applications and implications of the arrow poisons seen in Africa.
Growing Concern: The use of poisoned arrows became a significant concern for military surgeons due to their lethality.

Colonial Attitudes: Discussions of arrow poisons contributed to colonial narratives of superiority based on the British military's technological advancements, such as the repeating rifle.
Emerging Pharmaceuticals: The interest in arrow poisons helped steer early efforts at drug prospecting in Africa, combining indigenous knowledge with colonial medical practices.

Historical Pharmacology: The British Pharmacopoeia featured several African plant-derived ingredients alongside European folk remedies.
Strophanthin's Adoption: The shift towards synthetic medications sparked a revival of interest in traditional plant-based medicines as historical precursors to modern pharmaceuticals.

Definition: Bioprospecting, a term arising in 1992, refers to the exploration for new medicines and crops reliant on biodiversity and indigenous knowledge.
Contemporary Challenges: The legacy of unethical bioprospecting underscores the ongoing struggles for equitable benefits from the use of indigenous biological resources.

Cultural Context: Poisoned arrows represented not just weapons but symbols of resistance against colonial authority.
Historical Documentation: European accounts often lacked understanding of the indigenous knowledge surrounding arrow poisons and their medicinal applications.

Manufacturing Techniques: Knowledge of producing poisoned arrows was guarded within communities; processes included grinding seeds with additional elements to create potent poisons.
Cultural Exchange: African communities maintained their expertise despite colonial intrusion, adapting recipes to improve their effectiveness in conflict.

Colonial Science: The appropriation of indigenous knowledge facilitated the conversion of arrow poisons into the pharmaceutical strophanthin, demonstrating the intertwining of colonial exploitation and scientific advancement.
Initial Research: Thomas Fraser’s investigations into the properties of strophanthin were influenced by both medical practices and colonial motivations.

Chemical Processes: Strophanthin was extracted and refined from S. hispidus seeds, where its heart and circulation benefits were touted in European medicine.
Clinical Trials: Early trials in Germany led to the integration of strophanthin into various pharmacopoeias across Europe and the United States, addressing ailments like heart murmurs and various diseases.

War and Instability: The efforts to cultivate and export Strophanthus during the First World War faced significant obstacles, including poor agricultural practices and local resistance.
Colonial Mismanagement: The disorganization of colonial agricultural practices contributed to the failure of attempts to establish a viable trade in Strophanthus products.

End of Export Operations: By 1922, fears over the plants’ dangerous properties led to their destruction, ultimately stifling potential local economies centered around agricultural trade.

Interplay of Knowledge: The study concludes that the intersection of indigenous practices and colonial pharmaceutical advancements reflects deep power dynamics and knowledge exchanges.
Legacy of Appropriation: The ethical concerns surrounding the appropriation of indigenous knowledge continue to resonate in contemporary bioprospecting and pharmaceutical development.