Comprehensive Study Notes on Environmental Management and Sustainable Energy Supplies

Chapter 12: Environmental Management – Sustainable Energy Supplies

• Learning Outcomes: This guide covers renewable and non-renewable energy resources; factors at the national scale affecting demand and supply (sustainability, development levels, resource endowment, climate, income, technology, pollution, energy policy, and energy security); trends in fossil fuel consumption, nuclear power, and renewables (HEP, wind, biofuels) across LICs, MICs, and HICs; and the environmental impacts of energy production, transport, and usage at local and global scales.

Definition and Characteristics of Energy Resources

• Non-Renewable Resources: Naturally occurring energy substances with limited availability. They do not replenish naturally and deplete over time when consumed aggressively. Their wide utilization is driven by cost-effectiveness and ease of use for production and extraction.

• Renewable Resources: Energy sources that are sustainable and endless, such as the sun. Often referred to as "alternative energy" because they provide an alternative to the most commonly used non-sustainable sources.

• Lifespan Comparison: Non-renewable substances take longer than a human lifespan to get replaced or replenished, whereas renewable sources cannot run out.

Non-Renewable Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Power

• Fossil Fuel Formation: Formed within the Earth from dead plants and animals over millions of years, primarily during the Carboniferous Period ($300$ to $360$ million years ago). Remains were transformed by heat and pressure in underground layers of rock and sediment.

• Energy Origin: The energy is originally stored solar energy captured via photosynthesis by plants, which animals then consume. Burning fossil fuels releases this trapped energy.

• Types of Fossil Fuels:

  • Crude Oil (Petroleum): A liquid fuel used for gasoline, diesel, plastics, and lubricants. Extracted via vertical wells in the Earth's crust, ocean floor, or tar sands. It is dark in color, has a strong odor, and consists of mixed hydrocarbons.

  • Natural Gas: Deposits found below the subsurface comprising methane, propane, ethane, butane, and pentane. Processed into Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and used for heating, cooking, and electricity (steam/gas turbines).

  • Coal: A solid fossil fuel formed from plant remains in fossilized swamps. It exists in four forms: anthracite, lignite, bituminous, and sub-bituminous. It must be dug from the ground and burned to produce heat for electricity.

• Nuclear Energy: Derived from radioactive elements, mainly Uranium-$235$ and Plutonium-$239$, extracted from mined ore. Energy is released via nuclear fission (splitting nuclei) and transformed into electricity via steam turbines.

  • Zero-Carbon Status: Nuclear is non-renewable but considered "zero-carbon" or "low-carbon" because its generation emits almost no $CO_2$. It provides a stable base-load power independent of weather.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Non-Renewable Energy

• Crude Oil:

  • Advantages: High energy density (one barrel of $159\,liters$ generates approximately $1,700\,kWh$); easy to transport (pipelines/tankers); versatile (fuels and plastics); economic boost and jobs (e.g., Saudi Arabia, UAE).

  • Disadvantages: Air pollution ($CO_2$, $SO_2$, $NO_x$); major oil spill risks (e.g., Deepwater Horizon, $2010$); non-renewable (North Sea fields are in decline); price volatility (e.g., $1973$ Oil Crisis).

• Natural Gas:

  • Advantages: Cleaner than coal/oil (emits ~$50\%$ less $CO_2$); flexible and reliable; easy LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) transport (e.g., Qatar).

  • Disadvantages: Methane leaks (methane is $25\times$ stronger than $CO_2$ as a greenhouse gas); finite reserves; fracking risks (groundwater contamination and induced seismicity, e.g., Oklahoma, USA).

• Coal:

  • Advantages: Abundant and cheap (China, India, USA); long-established technology; supports local economies in mining towns (e.g., West Virginia).

  • Disadvantages: Highest $CO_2$ emissions; air pollution ($SO_2$, $NO_2$, mercury, particulates); land degradation (open-pit and mountaintop removal in Appalachia).

• Nuclear Energy:

  • Advantages: Low greenhouse gas emissions (France gets ~$70\%$ of electricity from nuclear); high energy density ($1\,kg$ of Uranium produces energy equal to ~$24,000\,kg$ of coal); grid stability.

  • Disadvantages: Risk of catastrophic accidents (Chernobyl $1986$, Fukushima $2011$); radioactive waste disposal challenges (e.g., Yucca Mountain controversy); high costs ($\text{UK's Hinkley Point C}$ exceeds $\pounds 30$ billion); public opposition.

Renewable Energy Resources: Types and Characteristics

• Solar Energy:

  • Nature: One hour of sunlight hitting Earth provides more energy than the planet's total annual requirements.

  • Positives: Abundant and free (e.g., Mojave Desert); low operating costs; zero emissions.

  • Negatives: Intermittent (weather/daylight dependent); high initial installation costs; requires large land areas (e.g., India's Charanka Solar Park).

• Wind Energy:

  • Mechanism: Turbines drive generators to feed the National Grid.

  • Positives: Clean and renewable (Denmark generates ~$50\%$ of its power from wind); land can be shared with agriculture (e.g., Iowa).

  • Negatives: Intermittent; noise and visual pollution; threat to wildlife (bird/bat fatalities at Altamont Pass, California).

• Hydroelectric Energy (HEP):

  • Mechanism: Flowing water through dams drives turbines. Can store energy via pumped storage (e.g., Dinorwig Power Station, UK).

  • Positives: Reliable; flood control and irrigation benefits (e.g., Aswan High Dam, Egypt).

  • Negatives: High upfront costs; ecosystem flooding and community displacement (e.g., Three Gorges Dam displaced $1.3$ million people); risk of dam failure.

• Tidal Energy:

  • Nature: Produced by the gravitational interaction between Earth, sun, and moon. Predictable twice-daily currents.

  • Positives: Highly predictable; long lifespan of plants (e.g., La Rance, France operational since $1966$).

  • Negatives: High construction costs; limited suitable estuaries; impact on marine migration.

• Geothermal Energy:

  • Nature: Harnesses natural heat/magma/steam from the Earth's mantle.

  • Positives: Continuous base-load power (Iceland gets ~$90\%$ of heating from geothermal); small land footprint.

  • Negatives: Location-specific (volcanic regions); risk of drilling-induced earthquakes (e.g., Basel, Switzerland); high exploration costs.

• Biomass Energy:

  • Nature: Conversion of solid fuel from plants or organic waste into electricity/fuel.

  • Positives: Uses waste products (Sweden burns municipal waste); renewable if managed; rural employment.

  • Negatives: Deforestation risk (biofuel plantations in Indonesia); emits some $CO_2$; competition with food crops (corn for ethanol in USA).

• Wave Energy:

  • Nature: Power drawn from waves; output measured by wave speed, height, wavelength, and water density.

  • Positives: High energy density; predictable; infinite supply from oceans.

  • Negatives: Technology still under development; high maintenance costs in harsh sea environments; navigation hazards.

National Energy Mix and Case Studies

• Energy Mix: The relative contribution of different energy sources to a country's total energy production or consumption.

• United Kingdom (HIC):

  • Status: Primary energy dominated by oil and natural gas ($76\%$ in $2019$). Renewables accounted for only $14.4\%$ in $2019$.

  • Goal: "Green industrial revolution" aiming for offshore wind to power every home by $2030$.

• Japan (HIC):

  • Change: Following the $2011$ Fukushima disaster, nuclear power dropped to $6\%$ by $2018$, almost vanishing from the mix. Coal, natural gas, and solar grew to compensate.

• China (MIC):

  • Demand: World's largest energy consumer since $2008$ (jumped from $8\%$ to $22\%$ of global share between $1980$ and $2018$).

  • Mix: Dominated by coal (nearly $60\%$ of total consumption), followed by oil (~$20\%$) and natural gas ($7.3\%$).

• Malaysia (MIC):

  • Structure: Population split between Peninsular and East Malaysia. Total capacity ~$23\,GW$. Interconnected with Singapore ($200\,MW$) and Thailand ($300\,MW$ ). Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) is the sole utility provider.

Factors Affecting Energy Demand and Supply

• Primary Drivers of Demand:

  • Population Growth: Energy consumption increases with population size. Global population is estimated to reach $9$ billion by $2050$ ($30\%$ increase).

  • Economic Development: Higher income leads to discretionary spending on energy-intensive goods.

  • Urbanization: Urban centers can lower consumption (public transport, compact dwellings) but often raise total demand due to higher productivity and household service needs. For every migrant from rural to urban China, energy consumption increased by >$1,000\,kg$ of coal equivalent ($2000$-$2007$).

  • Demographics: Ageing populations (e.g., Australia) may result in lower overall consumption due to small-scale household usage.

• Factors Affecting Supply:

  • Physical Factors: Availability depends on geology (e.g., shale gas, coal seams). New supplies require specific rock layers.

  • Cost of Exploitation: Wages and logistics impact profitability. High oil prices make difficult locations (offshore, fracking) viable.

  • Technology: Improvements in fracking (shale gas in USA) and efficient solar/wind panels open new opportunities.

  • Political Factors: Wars (e.g., Iraq setting fire to Kuwaiti wells in $1991$), corruption, and international treaties like the Kyoto Protocol ($1997$/$2005$) influence national energy choices.

Energy Leapfrogging in LICs

• The Concept: Low-income countries skipping the fossil-fuel-intensive stage of development and moving straight to low-carbon technologies.

• The Energy Dilemma: Millions lack reliable energy (over $750$ million lack electricity; over $2.5$ billion lack clean cooking). Expanding access risks offsetting global emission cuts.

• Bangladesh (LIC): Solar Home System (SHS) program. Extended electricity to $4$ million homes ($12\%$ of pop) by $2016$. Now over $15$ million homes are solar-powered, with $50,000$-$60,000$ added monthly.

• Rwanda (LIC): Currently has $221\,MW$ installed capacity with $51\%$ access ($37\%$ grid, $14\%$ off-grid solar). Strategy includes lanterns, mini-grids, and solar water pumps.

• Constraints to Leapfrogging:

  • Grid Infrastructure: Vietnam recently struggled to add wind/solar because the national grid could not stabilize or transfer the renewable capacity (NLDC restricted capacity in $2022$).

  • Finance: Requires scale-up from donors to reduce financial risks for poorer nations.

Energy Insecurity and Management Strategies

• Energy Insecurity: Lack of access to required energy at non-volatile prices. Impacts include:

  • Environmental Risk: Exploiting sensitive areas (e.g., Arctic drilling).

  • Economic Costs: Vulnerability to price setting by exporting nations.

  • Food Production: Biofuel crops (corn/sugar) compete with food crops for land, raising food prices.

  • Conflict: Upstream dams on rivers (e.g., tensions between Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia over the Nile River HEP dam) can reduce water supply downstream.

• Increasing Supply:

  • Non-Renewable Efficiency: Combined-cycle systems (re-using waste heat); co-firing (burning biomass with fossil fuels); nuclear reprocessing to recover Uranium from spent fuel rods.

  • Subsidies: Renewable technologies often require government financial support to compete with fossil fuels.

• Energy Sustainability and Conservation:

  • Carbon Footprints: Measuring individual impact through goods consumed, transport choice (walking/public transport vs. planes), and food miles (local vs. imported).

  • Domestic Efficiency: UK homes use insulation, thermostats, and smart meters. Homes are rated A (best) to G (worst).

  • Technology: Household appliances rated A+++ to D; Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) taxes biased against inefficient cars.

Specific Case Studies

• Druridge Bay Coal Mining (Northumberland):

  • Project: Open-pit mine by Banks Mining ($2016$-$2027$ extraction of $7$ million tonnes).

  • Advantages: $150$ jobs; restored site as a visitor attraction; reduced pollution from transporting imported coal.

  • Disadvantages: Fine particles affecting health (eyes, nose, throat); noise/blasting; local road congestion; increased carbon emissions.

• Centrosolar Panels (Kenya):

  • Project: German company fitted $312$ solar modules at Mombasa SOS Children's Village in $2011$.

  • Impact: Provides $60\,kWp$ for $130$ children and $500$ local students. Surplus energy sold to the national grid.

  • Success factors: Appropriate technology (cheap and low-maintenance); utilizes Kenya's high solar endowment.

Global Environmental Impacts of Energy

• Climate Change and Fossil Fuels:

  • Fossil fuels provide $80\%$ of global primary energy demand and cause two-thirds of $CO_2$ emissions.

  • Ground rule: To limit warming to $2\,^{\circ}C$, $60\%$ of oil and $90\%$ of coal must remain underground.

• Oil Slicks and Spills:

  • Amazon (Sucumbíos province in Ecuador) is heavily affected. Nearly $400$ communities in the Peruvian Amazon have heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury) in their systems due to spells.

  • "Mecheros" (huge chimneys) burn exhaust gases from oil extraction, polluting rainwater.

• Radioactive Waste:

  • Chernobyl ($1986$): Formed a $2,600\,km^2$ exclusion zone. Animals suffered oxidative stress, reduced brain size, and impaired cognitive abilities due to radiation.

  • Long-term storage (thousands of years) is required for lethal waste.

• Acid Rain: Caused by fossil fuel emissions reacting with atmospheric humidity; results in soil and sea acidification, damaging land and marine flora.

Global Consumption Trends ($2020$-$2030$)

• Fossil Fuels:

  • Qatar (HIC): Highest per capita fossil fuel consumption (~$165,000\,kWh$ in $2020$).

  • Singapore (HIC): Second highest fossil fuel consumption per capita (~$162,000\,kWh$).

  • USA & China: Largest total oil consumers ($18.7$ million and $15.4$ million barrels per day respectively).

• Natural Gas: Global production reached $4$ trillion cubic meters in $2021$. The USA is the top producer and consumer, followed by Russia.

• Coal: Asia-Pacific region contains six of the ten largest coal consumers. Non-OECD countries now consume $81.5\%$ of the world's coal. China dominates both production and consumption.

• Nuclear: USA is the largest consumer (~$30\%$ of global share). China has the most units under construction ($15$ units) and planned ($33$ units) and is projected to surpass the USA.

• Hydropower: Global consumption ~$40\,exajoules$. China, Canada, and Brazil are leaders. Canada produces over $90\%$ of energy via hydro in several provinces.

• Wind: Global capacity reached $743\,GW$ in $2020$. China leads with $35.2\%$ global share. Gansu wind farm in China targets $20,000\,MW$ potential.

• Biofuels: Global demand set to grow $28\%$ by $2026$. USA and Brazil remain leaders. Asia (led by Indonesia and India) is projected to surpass European production before $2026$.