Ch. 13.3 Social Relations: How We Relate to Each Other

First Impressions

• Definition – Impression formation = the snap, initial appraisal you make of another person during first contact.

• Speed & Content – Judgments about a stranger’s face can happen in as little as 0.1 s0.1\text{ s}; cues used include clothes, hairstyle, posture, voice, age, gender, etc.

• Physical Attractiveness Effects

  • Highly attractive people tend to have more money, jobs, and sexual partners (Macrae & Quadflieg, 20102010).

  • Facial cues processed almost instantaneously; attractiveness, trustworthiness, and status are co-judged (Palomares & Young, 20182018).

  • Determinants: bilateral symmetry, averageness/prototypicality for age/gender/ethnicity, healthy skin & teeth, good grooming, friendly expression.

• Body Influences

  • Cultural variation exists, but in contemporary Western cultures obesity elicits negative trait ascriptions (e.g., laziness, incompetence).

  • Overweight bodies rated lower in conscientiousness & extraversion (Hu et al., 20182018).

  • Gait matters: masculine gait in men & feminine gait in women → higher positivity (Johnson & Tassinary, 20072007).

• Clothing & Status

  • “Richer” clothes → higher competence ratings even under <1\text{ s} exposure and contradictory SES info (Oh et al., 20202020).

• Impression Management – Deliberate self-presentation (hair, clothes, posture, greeting) to shape others’ perceptions.

  • Chris Rock: “You’re meeting their representative.”

Prejudice, Stereotypes, & Discrimination

Core Definitions

• Prejudice – often-negative attitude toward a group formed before encounter.
• Stereotype – trait belief applied broadly to group members (e.g., “all elders are forgetful”).
• Discrimination – observable behavior based on prejudice/stereotype (e.g., stepping off elevator).

Neural Basis

• Amygdala activity indicates stereotyping is largely implicit, emotional not rational.

Contemporary Subtle Forms

• Résumé study: “Brett/Allison” received 50%50\% more callbacks than “Rasheed/Tamika” (Bertrand & Mullainathan, 20032003).
• “Shopping While Black”: Black shoppers 3×3\times likelier to be monitored while trying on sunglasses (Schreer et al., 20092009).
• Health-care review: in 4242 studies, higher provider bias = lower quality care (FitzGerald & Hurst, 20172017).

Ingroups & Outgroups

• Ingroup = “us,” Outgroup = “them.”
• Ingroup bias – favor own group.
• Outgroup homogeneity – “they’re all alike,” arises mainly when outgroup perceived as threat.

Cognitive & Evolutionary Roots

• Categorical Thinking – mental “boxes” simplify but ignore individuality.
• Smoke-Detector Principle – evolutionary oversensitivity; false alarms (prejudice) safer than one missed danger.

  • Humans prejudge the unknown, unhealthy, angry-looking.
    • Social Comparison – elevating self by derogating others; operates for attributes like weight, attractiveness, likes.

Rationalizations

• Just-World Hypothesis – bad things happen to those who deserve them; leads to victim-blaming.
• Scapegoat Hypothesis – displacing blame onto outgroup to protect self-image.

Reducing Prejudice

• Intergroup Contact – direct interaction lowers anxiety & ingroup bias; effect extends online (Kim & Wojcieszak, 20182018).

  • College longitudinal study of 20002000 students: more outgroup friends in year 11 → less bias by graduation.
    • Common Group Identity – redefine “us”; e.g., Olympic team, post-tornado interfaith aid.
    • Education – accurate info about outgroup or hearing ingroup friends’ cross-group ties diminishes bias.
    • Analogy to Phobia Treatment – exposure reduces irrational fear (Pettigrew & Tropp, 20062006).

Aggression

• Definition – behavior intended to harm or kill.

Biological Influences

• Archeology: ≈50%\approx50\% of 5959 skeletons 12,00012{,}000–14,00014{,}000 yr old had weapon injuries.
• Toddlers show early aggression; longitudinal NY study (N=230230) – aggression at 88 predicts aggression at 19,30,4819,30,48.
• Genetics: twin/adoption meta-analysis → genes account for ≤50%\le50\% of variance (Miles & Carey, 19971997).

Psychological Influences

• Low empathy & high impulsivity → higher aggression (Sergeant et al., 20062006).
• Observational learning: modeling family/friends/media (Bandura, 19771977).

Cyberbullying (Current Controversy)

• ≈20%\approx20\% teens reported repeated cybervictimization (20102010); 33.8%33.8\% at least once by 20162016.
• Consequences: depression, anxiety, substance use, suicidality.
• Related social-psych concepts: deindividuation, social comparison, ingroup/outgroup, scapegoat, groupthink, reciprocity norm, bystander effect.

Situational Influences

• Minor irritants – smoke, overcrowding, bad odor, chronic noise → frustration → aggression.
• Major triggers – social rejection, ostracism; common in mass-shooting histories.
• Heat – Each 1∘C1^{\circ}\text{C} rise → +5.92%+5.92\% homicide worldwide; MLB pitchers, NFL penalties rise with temperature.
• Weapons Effect – visible rifle + “Vengeance” sticker → more horn honking. Lab: holding gun ⇒\Rightarrow 3×3\times more hot sauce added.
• Alcohol – >50%50\% violent crimes involve alcohol; expectation of intoxication elevates aggression regardless of actual BAC.
• Alcohol + Energy Drinks – stronger predictor of bar aggression than alcohol alone.
• Media Violence – Violent movie/video game primes aggressive play & noise blasts; active participation (gaming) > passive viewing.

Diversity & Gender Patterns

• Direct/Physical Aggression – higher in boys/men.
• Indirect/Relational Aggression – higher in girls/women; rumors, social exclusion, online drama.
• Not exclusive; crossover exists.

Attraction & Love

Proximity & Mere Exposure

• Frequent contact boosts liking; study with four women attending class 00, 55, 1010, 1515 times → exposure dose-response in attractiveness ratings.
• Overexposure can reverse effect after threshold.

Physical Attractiveness

• Global survey (N>10,00010{,}000) – Straight men prioritize youthful, healthy looks; straight women prioritize status/resources (Buss, 19891989).
• Evolutionary logic: fertility vs. resource provisioning.
• Jealousy patterns: men react to sexual infidelity, women to emotional.
• “Average” composite faces rated highly attractive due to absence of anomalies.

Similarity

• “Birds of a feather”: marital partner similarity in education & looks; student–teacher similarity improves grades.
• Perceived similarity suffices; fans like musicians whose personalities mirror theirs.

Reciprocal Liking

• Knowing someone likes you increases your liking (speed-dating study, Eastwick et al., 20072007).

Romantic Love Types

• Passionate Love – intense desire & arousal, early phase.
• Companionate Love – deep affection & commitment, later phase.

  • Key maintenance factors: Equity (fair give/get) & Self-Disclosure (mutual openness).

Practical Take-aways / Life Hacks

• To curb personal prejudice: actively build relationships with dissimilar people.
• To reduce aggressive urges: manage heat, alcohol, and weapon cues; cultivate empathy & self-control.
• For lasting romance: ensure equity, practice self-disclosure, and embrace transition from passionate to companionate stages.