A&P I Chapter One Flash Cards

Course Structure and Resources

• This course is an 8-week AP (Anatomy & Physiology) class focused on Skin, Bones, Muscles, and Nervous System in AP1; additional systems are covered in AP2 (Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Digestive, Immune/Lymphatic, Urinary, Reproductive).
• Course delivery and resources (all accessed via D2L):
  • Readable version of textbook for highlighting and text-to-speech
  • Chapter outlines: summarize ~90% of exam material
  • JoVE video library: 1–2 minute topic-specific videos (25–30 videos per chapter)
  • PowerPoints and quizzes
  • Thea AI study kits: AI-assisted practice quizzes, flashcards, and games; adaptively increases difficulty
  • Respondus LockDown Browser + Respondus Monitor for all lecture exams and the final
  • Teams for optional virtual attendance if needed
• Attendance and accessibility:
  • Attendance strongly correlates with success; virtual attendance is allowed if arranged early
  • If you miss class, you can join via Teams to watch and participate
• Schedule and timing:
  • Eight-week term with exams roughly every few chapters; first exam opens next Thursday; exams typically open Tue–Sat and close on Sunday
  • Syllabus quiz must be completed by Monday; otherwise you are considered not attending and may be removed
• Course policies emphasize integrity and preparedness:
  • Academic integrity is strictly enforced; cheaters will be reported and receive a zero; integrity quiz in the syllabus is mandatory
  • Tests (including the final) occur through Respondus Monitor and LockDown Browser
  • There is little autonomy in the AP1 course; tests have a fixed format and minimum application-based questions

Core Concepts in Anatomy & Physiology

• Anatomy vs Physiology definitions
  • Anatomy: the study of form (structure/parts)
  • Physiology: the study of function (how parts work together)
  • Complementarity of form and function: understanding function requires knowing the parts; understanding parts helps explain function
• Levels of organization (from chemical to organism)
  • Chemical level: atoms, molecules, compounds; bonds (e.g., covalent bonds)
  • Basic unit of life: cells (despite chemicals alone not alive)
  • Tissues: groups of cells working together
  • Organs: tissues grouped to perform specific functions
  • Organ systems: groups of organs performing broader functions
  • Organism: the complete living being
  • Note: bacteria are single-cell organisms and do not always reach the tissue level
• Chapter structure in AP1
  • Chapter 1: Terminology and organization of the human body
  • Chapter 2: Chemistry (chemistry basics underpin biology)
  • Chapter 3: Cells (cytology: study of cells; organelles like mitochondria, Golgi, lysosomes, centrioles)
  • Chapter 4: Tissues (histology: study of tissues)
  • Chapter 5: Organs and organ systems; introduction to systemic anatomy

Levels of Organization (Detailed)

• Chemical level
  • Atoms, molecules, compounds
  • Bonds and interactions (e.g., covalent bonds)
• Cellular level
  • Cells as basic living units; cytology covers organelles and functions
• Tissue level
  • Tissues formed by cells: e.g., epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous (histology)
• Organ level
  • Organs are functional units composed of multiple tissues
• Organ system level
  • 11 body systems work together to sustain life
• Organism level
  • The integrated functioning of all systems in a human being
• Important caveat
  • Not all life forms reach every level (e.g., single-celled bacteria stay at the cellular level)

The Human Body: 11 Systems (Names and Core Roles)

• Circulatory (Cardiovascular) system: heart, blood vessels, blood
• Integumentary system: skin, hair, nails (protection, boundaries, sensation)
• Skeletal system: bones and joints (support, protection, leverage)
• Nervous system: brain, spinal cord, nerves (control, communication, response)
• Immune and Lymphatic system: immune cells and lymphatic vessels/nodes (defense, fluid balance)
• Muscular system: skeletal muscles (movement and posture)
• Reproductive system: gonads and associated organs (production of offspring)
• Digestive system: mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, etc. (nutrient acquisition, digestion, absorption)
• Respiratory system: lungs, airways, diaphragm (gas exchange, oxygen intake, CO₂ removal)
• Urinary (Excretory) system: kidneys, bladder, ureters, urethra (waste removal, fluid balance)
• Endocrine system: glands that produce hormones (e.g., pituitary, thyroid, pancreas)
• Note: These systems are studied in a systemic approach (parts defined by system, not location) within this course

Anatomy Position, Planes, and Directional Terms

• Anatomical position basics
  • Stand upright with feet together or shoulder-width apart, arms at sides
  • Palms facing forward, thumbs pointed away from the body
  • Head and eyes directed forward
  • Some lectures discuss variations for male anatomy orientation (e.g., ventral/anterior orientation of the penis in anatomical position); standard references may vary; always refer to anatomical position for directional terms
• Directional terms (paired opposites)
  • Superior (cranial): toward head
  • Inferior (caudal): toward feet
  • Anterior (ventral): toward the front
  • Posterior (dorsal): toward the back
  • Medial: toward the midline
  • Lateral: away from the midline
  • Proximal: closer to a point of attachment
  • Distal: farther from a point of attachment
  • Superficial: toward the surface
  • Deep: away from the surface
  • Intermediate: between two structures (between medial and lateral, or proximal and distal in some contexts)
• Planes of section (to describe slices of the body)
  • Transverse (horizontal): superior and inferior parts
  • Frontal (coronal): anterior and posterior parts
  • Sagittal: right and left parts
  • Mid-sagittal: equal right and left halves
  • Parasagittal: not equal halves (off midline)
  • Oblique plane: diagonal sections
• Planes applied to body examples
  • Transverse divides into upper (superior) and lower (inferior)
  • Frontal divides into front (anterior) and back (posterior)
  • Sagittal divides into left and right; midsagittal is the perfect midline cut
• Practical note on planes
  • These terms help describe location and orientation across all anatomical study

Homeostasis, Receptors, and Feedback Mechanisms

• Homeostasis: a steady-state maintenance of internal environment within narrow limits
  • Blood pH: normal range for survival is $7.35 ext{ to } 7.45$
  • Blood sugar example: normal glucose roughly $80 ext{ to } 120 ext{ mg/dL}$ (context-dependent; targets around 90 mg/dL used in lectures)
  • Temperature, atmospheric pressure, ion concentrations, etc., must be kept within narrow ranges
• Structure of a homeostatic loop
  • Receptor: detects changes (e.g., chemoreceptors for pH/glucose)
  • Control center: processes information and decides on a response
  • Effector: carries out the response to restore the set range
• Negative feedback (typical for homeostasis)
  • Response reduces the original stimulus, bringing conditions back toward the set range
  • Example: blood glucose control
  • Pancreas (endocrine effector) secretes insulin when blood glucose is high; insulin lowers glucose; once back in range, insulin release stops via negative feedback
  • Importance: prevents overcorrection and oscillations around the set point
• Positive feedback (not typically for homeostasis; used to achieve a goal)
  • Example: childbirth (oxytocin release leads to stronger contractions, which release more oxytocin, amplifying the process until delivery)
  • Example: blood clotting (platelets release chemicals, recruiting more platelets to reinforce clot formation)
  • Note: positive feedback drives processes to completion, not to a steady state
• Additional homeostasis concepts
  • Set point vs. range: a range is usually maintained, not a single exact value, to avoid constant on-off cycling
  • Receptors and control centers work via nervous and endocrine systems to maintain homeostasis

Metabolism, Digestion, and Respiration (Basic Physiology Concepts)

• Metabolism: all chemical reactions that convert nutrients into energy and building blocks
  • Catabolism: breaking down molecules (energy-releasing reactions)
  • Anabolism: synthesizing new molecules (energy-consuming reactions)
  • Coupled processes: products of one reaction serve as substrates for another
• Digestion: acquisition and processing of nutrients from food; transforms into usable forms for cells
• Respiration (cellular): gas exchange and energy production
  • Oxygen is required for human cells to survive
  • Digestion provides nutrients; respiration provides oxygen to metabolize those nutrients
  • Cellular respiration yields carbon dioxide as a byproduct: CO₂
• Boundary maintenance and excretion
  • Skin forms a boundary to protect and regulate water loss
  • Excretion removes metabolic wastes (e.g., via urine) to maintain internal environment
• Basic plant vs. animal comparison (conceptual)
  • Plants perform photosynthesis using chloroplasts; animals do not and require external nutrients and oxygen

Scientific Practice, Exam Prep, and Studying Strategies

• Emphasis on active learning and writing for retention
  • Writing study aids improves retention vs. passive listening/reading
• Study guides and quizzes
  • Chapter quizzes: 10 questions per quiz; five attempts allowed; only the highest score counts
  • Drops: the lowest 3 quiz grades are dropped from the grade calculation
  • Quizzes help identify topics to study; not a direct preview of test questions
  • Study guides are handwritten; answering all parts of questions earns a bonus 10 points per guide
• Bonus and flex points
  • Optional bonuses (e.g., Labsters) can boost scores; details posted in course resources
  • Flex points allow the instructor to assign other activities (case studies, projects, more quizzes)
• Thea AI study kits
  • AI-generated worksheets, games, flashcards, and adaptive practice quizzes for prep
  • The practice quizzes via Thea tell you why a given answer is correct or incorrect
  • Thea-based practice adapts difficulty as you improve
• In-class materials and emphasis
  • Textbook outlines, videos, and labs are crucial resources
  • The PowerPoints provide helpful diagrams; images may appear on later exams (not on the first two exams)
• Lab and exam policy details
  • Lab spelling must be exact; exact letter grade discipline is emphasized
  • Lab exams and lecture exams are separate components; only some elements appear on exams
• Exam timing and administration
  • Four lecture exams plus a comprehensive final; all exams are monitored via Respondus and LockDown Browser
  • Exam dates are posted; exams open for several days to accommodate schedules

Syllabus, Policies, and Course Logistics

• Syllabus quiz and course access
  • You must score 100% on the syllabus agreement quiz to access course resources
  • The syllabus contains the CRN number you must memorize for quizzes
  • Initial quizzes (syllabus and Respondus compatibility) unlock the course materials
• Attendance and withdrawal policies
  • September 11 is the last date to withdraw without penalty (automatic W if withdrawal occurs)
  • After September 11, grades get assigned as A–F unless a hardship withdrawal is approved
• Contacting and coordinating with the instructor
  • Early communication is encouraged for Teams access or virtual attendance requests
• Practical considerations for students
  • An eight-week pace means high content volume; plan time accordingly
  • The pace is intense; consider a slower sixteen-week option if needed
• Important dates and scheduling notes
  • Labor Day (September 1) is a no-class day; optional study sessions may still occur outside class
  • Lecture tests typically open on Thursdays and run through Sundays; labs often scheduled separately

Quick Reference: Key Numbers and Terms

• Blood pH: viable living range = $7.35 ext{ to } 7.45$
• Normal blood glucose target (lecture context): around $80 ext{ to } 120 ext{ mg/dL}$
• Atmospheric pressure at sea level: $760 ext{ mmHg}$
• Number of body systems studied in this course: 11 (Cardiovascular, Integumentary, Skeletal, Nervous, Immune/Lymphatic, Muscular, Reproductive, Digestive, Respiratory, Urinary, Endocrine)
• The organismal organization progression: chemical → cellular → tissue → organ → organ system → organism
• Planes and terms (summary):
  • Transverse (horizontal): superior/inferior
  • Frontal (coronal): anterior/posterior
  • Sagittal: left/right; midsagittal = equal halves; parasagittal = unequal halves
  • Oblique: diagonal plane
• Directional terms (selected):
  • Superior (cranial) vs. Inferior (caudal)
  • Anterior (ventral) vs. Posterior (dorsal)
  • Medial vs. Lateral
  • Proximal vs. Distal
  • Superficial vs. Deep
  • Intermediate (between two positions)
• Receptors, control centers, effectors in homeostasis
  • Receptor detects change; control center processes; effector executes response
• Negative vs. Positive Feedback (conceptual)
  • Negative feedback stabilizes within a range (e.g., insulin reducing high blood sugar)
  • Positive feedback amplifies a process toward a goal (e.g., childbirth, blood clotting)
• Core vocabulary to study for Chapter 1 terminology:
  • Cytology: study of cells; organelles include mitochondria, Golgi, lysosomes, centrioles
  • Histology: study of tissues
  • Gastric terms for future chapters: catabolism (breakdown), anabolism (synthesis)
  • Metabolism: all chemical reactions in cells