Gender Equality and Sustainable Societies

Academic References

• Authors: Ana Belén Fernández-Torres, Margarita Martí-Ripoll, Josep Gallifa, a collaborative team contributing to interdisciplinary social science research.

• Article Title: Gender Equality and Sustainable Societies: The Role of Identity Salience, Ideological Beliefs, and Support for Feminism, precisely indicating the core themes investigated.

• Published In: Social Sciences 14:552, a specific issue and article number within a distinguished peer-reviewed academic journal, indicating its scholarly rigor and reach.

• Publication Date: 16 September 2025, defining its recency and prospective contribution to the literature.

• DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14090552, a Digital Object Identifier that serves as a unique and permanent link to the article, ensuring its discoverability and citation accuracy.

• Copyright: \/copyright 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license, meaning the content is freely available for use, distribution, and adaptation, provided proper attribution is given to the original creators.

Abstract

• Objective: This study set out to systematically examine the complex interplay between individuals' ideological beliefs (including their political orientation, environmental values, and moral conservatism), the degree to which their gender is a central aspect of their identity (gender identity salience), and their expressed support for feminism within the specific sociopolitical climate of Spain.

• Sample: The research utilized a robust, nationally representative sample comprising $N = 3928$ participants. This data was meticulously extracted from the 2024 CIS (Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas) survey, ensuring wide demographic coverage and enhancing the generalizability of the findings across the Spanish population.

• Key Findings:

  • A notable positive association was found between higher levels of support for feminism and individuals who self-reported viewing gender as a particularly salient or important dimension of their personal identity.

  • A consistent correlation emerged between a progressive ideological stance and alignment with feminist principles. This progressive stance was characterized by individuals exhibiting a left-wing political orientation, expressing strong environmental values, and holding lower levels of moral conservatism.

  • Interestingly, when the broader influence of ideological beliefs was statistically controlled and accounted for, gender identity salience itself no longer demonstrated a significant independent association with support for feminism. This suggests that the relationship between gender identity salience and feminist support might be mediated or overshadowed by deeper ideological commitments.

  • The study also uncovered distinct patterns of feminist support when comparing women and men, indicating gender-specific dynamics in how identity and ideological factors shape views on feminism.

  • The research underscores the importance of adopting value-oriented and multi-identity approaches. This implies that strategies aimed at fostering greater engagement with and support for feminism should move beyond a singular focus on gender alone, instead considering a broader spectrum of values and diverse social identities.

Keywords

• Gender identity salience: Refers to the psychological phenomenon where an individual's gender becomes a prominent and important component of their self-concept, influencing their perceptions and behaviors, especially regarding gender-related issues.

• Ideological beliefs: Encompass a cohesive set of political, moral, and social convictions, values, and principles that serve to guide an individual's worldview, shape their understanding of societal structures, and dictate their attitudes towards various social justice movements.

• Identification across social categories: Describes the cognitive and emotional process by which individuals affiliate themselves with various social groups or categories (e.g., based on nationality, profession, family roles), which profoundly influences their self-perception, intergroup relations, and engagement with collective issues.

• Sustainability: A multifaceted concept centring on the principle of meeting the developmental and resource needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It inherently integrates environmental protection, social equity, and economic viability.

• Environmental values: Pertain to the core beliefs, attitudes, and ethical considerations that reflect an individual's profound concern for the natural environment, advocating for its protection, conservation, and the promotion of ecological well-being.

• SDG 5 (Gender Equality): Represents one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations, specifically targeting the achievement of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls globally, recognizing its foundational role in sustainable development.

1. Introduction

1.1. Identity, Ideology, and Sociopolitical Attitudes in the Sustainability Context

• The United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development unequivocally establishes comprehensive gender equality and the creation of truly inclusive societies as paramount objectives. These goals are recognized as interdependent and essential for achieving global progress and collective human well-being.

• Public attitudes and receptiveness to various social justice movements, particularly feminism, are often deeply embedded in and ideologically polarized along existing political and social lines. This division reflects fundamental differences in how societal problems are perceived and solutions are envisioned.

• Social identity serves as a powerful motivational anchor, profoundly shaping an individual's political beliefs, sociopolitical attitudes, and overall worldview:

  • Definition (Jost et al., 2009; Tajfel et al., 1979): Social identity is formally defined as an individual's sense of belonging to specific social categories or groups. This affiliation is not merely a classification but a profound lens through which individuals interpret social realities, form beliefs, and interact with the world.

• System-justifying beliefs (Duckitt & Sibley, 2010), which refer to the psychological propensity to defend, legitimize, and uphold the status quo and existing social order, can frequently lead individuals to oppose redistributive movements and initiatives, including feminist efforts that challenge established power structures and advocate for systemic change.

• Conversely, a strong personal alignment with prosocial values, such as altruism, empathy, and a deep concern for the collective well-being of others, tends to significantly increase individuals' receptiveness to and active support for feminist claims and goals (Sanders & Jenkins, 2022).

• Despite the growing recognition of the roles of identity and ideology individually, there remains a notable limited research gap that robustly explores the intricate interplay between gender identity salience and its interaction with broader ideological frameworks within large, nationally representative samples. This gap highlights a crucial area for further empirical investigation.

1.2. Feminist Support as a Social and Political Construct for Sustainable Societies

• Gender equality is globally acknowledged as a foundational cornerstone for constructing truly sustainable, equitable, and just societies. Achieving this ambitious goal necessitates not only top-down institutional reforms and policy changes but also widespread public understanding, acceptance, and active support for feminist initiatives (directly aligning with SDG 5).

• Economic Impact: Beyond its ethical imperative, advancing gender equality also yields substantial economic benefits. Studies, such as that conducted by Jeevanasai et al. (2023), suggest that achieving greater gender parity can potentially lead to a significant increase in global Gross Domestic Product (GDP), estimated to be around 34%. This is primarily achieved by fostering more inclusive economic participation, unlocking untapped human potential, and stimulating innovation.

• Feminism's recognition and acceptance, both in public social discourse and within political arenas, remains highly uneven and is often politically polarized (Kantola & Lombardo, 2019). Significant segments of society hold either strong support or express considerable reservations and opposition.

• In the context of this study, support for feminism is conceptualized as encompassing several critical dimensions:

  • Personal identification with feminist values: This reflects an individual's intrinsic alignment with the core principles, beliefs, and ethical stance that define feminism.

  • Engagement and agreement with feminist goals: This involves active participation or verbal endorsement of the stated goals and objectives of feminist movements (Siegel & Calogero, 2021), such as advocating for equal rights, opportunities, and the eradication of discrimination.

  • Single-item measure: In the survey instrument used, support was primarily assessed through participants' level of agreement with the straightforward statement: “The feminist movement is necessary for equality.” This was typically measured on a multi-point Likert scale.

1.3. Identity Salience, Multiple Identifications, and Feminist Attitudes

• Social identities are potent determinants that profoundly shape an individual's fundamental sense of belonging, concurrently influencing their motivation and engagement with critical equality issues and various social justice causes (Crocetti et al., 2022).

• Gender identity salience, or the degree to which one's gender is a prominent and central part of their self-concept, is often considered crucial for individuals to effectively detect, acknowledge, and develop an understanding of gender-based injustices and systemic inequalities prevalent in society (Alexander et al., 2022; Chamberlin & Plant, 2023).

• However, it is recognized that gender may be less salient for some individuals who prioritize other identities (e.g., professional identity, national identity, familial roles, or religious affiliations). Those who strongly prioritize these non-gender identities may, at times, exhibit resistance or less engagement with feminist ideas, particularly if they perceive them as conflicting with their other salient group memberships or existing social norms (van Breen et al., 2017).

1.4. Ideological Beliefs and Values as Predictors of Feminist Support

• An individual's political orientation consistently emerges as a significant and robust predictor of their overall support for gender equality initiatives and broader feminist aims.

  • Left-leaning individuals are, on average, demonstrably more likely to align themselves with feminist goals and values. This is often attributed to their ideological emphasis on social justice, equality, collective well-being, and a critical stance against hierarchical power structures (Cassese & Holman, 2016; Sevincer et al., 2023).

• Meritocracy: A strong belief in meritocratic success—the idea that individual achievement and social standing are solely determined by hard work, talent, and effort—can paradoxically contribute to significant difficulties in recognizing and acknowledging the pervasive systemic inequalities that feminism seeks to address (Bettache et al., 2020). This is because a strong meritocratic belief often downplays or ignores structural barriers, biases, and privileges that hinder equal opportunity.

• Environmental values, characterized by a deep concern for ecological sustainability, intergenerational justice, and responsible stewardship of natural resources, are increasingly recognized as being intrinsically linked to feminist ideals. This connection arises from shared principles of justice, equity, and a critical stance against dominant, growth-oriented societal paradigms that frequently neglect both social well-being and environmental health (Cuenca-Soto et al., 2023; Echavarren, 2023).

1.5. Gaps in the Literature and the Spanish Context

• The existing academic literature has shown limited exploration regarding the intricate dynamics of identity salience and its interaction with established ideological frameworks in shaping individuals' perspectives and overall support for feminism. This represents a significant theoretical and empirical gap.

• The Spanish context, characterized by a relatively recent history of dictatorial rule followed by rapid democratization, significant ongoing gender-related debates (e.g., the #MeToo movement, extensive public discourse around gender violence and sexual consent, recent legislative changes), and profound cultural transformations (e.g., shifts in family structures, increasing LGBTQ+ rights), provides a particularly fertile and relevant ground for conducting this specific study (Delgado, 2021). It offers unique and valuable insights into these global phenomena within a dynamic national setting.

1.6. Present Study

• Aim: The primary aim of this comprehensive and focused study is to systematically investigate the various identity-related and ideological correlates that predict and shape individuals' support for feminism among a representative sample of the adult population in Spain.

  • The research questions specifically focused on exploring the nuanced role of gender identity salience, examining the influence of diverse ideological beliefs (e.g., political conservatism, environmentalism, moral stances), and identifying potential gender differences in the observed patterns of feminist support.

2. Method

2.1. Participants and Procedure

• Data Source: The study utilized secondary data meticulously collected from the CIS (Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas) Study No. 3480, which was conducted during October 2024. This comprehensive survey captures a rich array of public opinions, attitudes, and sociodemographic information across Spain.

• Sampling Method: To ensure robust representativeness, a rigorous stratified random sampling method was employed. This method involved systematically selecting participants from 1153 municipalities across Spain, ensuring broad geographical and demographic coverage, thereby minimizing sampling bias and enhancing the generalizability of the findings.

• Data Collection Method: Data was primarily collected through Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI), a widely recognized and standardized method for conducting large-scale social surveys. Approximately 82% of the interviews were conducted via mobile phones, while 18% were completed via landlines, reflecting the evolution of communication trends.

• Sampling Error: The study reports a sampling error of $\pm1.6\%$ at a 95.5% confidence level. This indicates a relatively high degree of precision and reliability for the survey estimates, suggesting that the results are likely to be close to the true population values within this margin.

2.2. Survey Indicators and Variables

• Participants completed a comprehensive battery of survey items specifically designed to capture various psychological constructs. These included self-reported political orientation (indicating their left-right political leaning), their stated level of support for feminism, various ideological and moral beliefs (e.g., endorsement of meritocracy, degree of moral conservatism, environmental values), specific measures of identity salience (e.g., which social categories were most central to their self-identity), and their reported degree of identification across twelve distinct social categories. All measures utilized multiple, validated scales or single items as appropriate.

2.3. Variables Measured

• Political Orientation: This key ideological variable was assessed using a standard 11-point left-right self-placement scale (associated with item code: ESCIDEOL). On this scale, higher numerical values consistently indicated a stronger identification with the left-wing political spectrum, while lower values indicated a right-wing orientation.

• Support for Feminism: This core dependent variable was measured through participants' explicit agreement with a statement affirming the necessity of feminism for achieving gender equality. Responses were captured on a 5-point Likert scale (associated with item code: P6_3), ranging from 'strongly disagree' to 'strongly agree'.

• Ideological Beliefs: This broader category encompassed several dimensions. The study assessed beliefs such as the endorsement of meritocracy (the belief that success is solely due to individual talent and effort), levels of moral conservatism (adherence to traditional moral values), and the strength of environmental values (concern for ecological protection). These were measured through relevant, pre-existing survey items within the CIS dataset.

• Identity Salience: This variable was measured by directly asking participants to indicate their most central social category (associated with item code: P2A1) from a provided list of twelve distinct options. This aimed to pinpoint which identity held the most psychological prominence for each individual.

• Identification Across Social Categories: In addition to salience, participants also rated their degree of identification with twelve specific identity domains (e.g., nationality, social class, gender, age group, religion) on a 5-point scale (associated with item codes: P21 to P212), providing a more granular understanding of their multi-layered social identity.

2.4. Analytic Strategy

• The analytical approach employed in this study followed a structured sequence. It began with descriptive statistics to characterize the sample and key variables. This was followed by independent-samples t-tests to examine mean differences, Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) to assess group differences across multiple dependent variables simultaneously, and finally, generalized linear models (specifically regression analyses) to predict support for feminism based on the identified independent variables.

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive Statistics

• Findings: The descriptive analyses revealed generally moderate support for feminist ideals across the entire sample. This support was notably higher among women (mean $M = 3.71$ on the 5-point scale) compared to men (mean $M = 3.39$). These values indicate that women, on average, expressed stronger agreement with the necessity of feminism for equality. Furthermore, the overall sample reported a general political orientation trending towards the left (mean $M = 6.19$ on the 11-point scale, where higher values indicate left identification) and demonstrated a moderate rejection of strong meritocratic assumptions, suggesting some awareness of systemic factors influencing success.

3.2. Group Differences Based on Gender Identity Salience

• Participants who explicitly prioritized gender as their most central social identity showed higher identification with certain specific identities, such as their social group based on gender. However, the analyses indicated no statistically significant direct difference in overall feminist support when simply categorizing individuals by whether or not they prioritized gender identity alone. This suggests that the mere salience of gender identity, without considering other factors, might not be a sole predictor of feminist support.

3.3. Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)

• Results: The Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) yielded statistically significant overall findings across the various dependent variables concerning gender identity salience. This highlighted complex, subgroup-specific effects, implying that the influence of gender identity salience on different outcomes varies across distinct groups, rather than a monolithic effect.

3.4. Generalized Linear Models Predicting Support for Feminism

• Results: The generalized linear models demonstrated a good model fit, indicating that the chosen predictors explained a substantial portion of the variance in support for feminism. Several variables were identified as significant predictors: strong environmental values, a more left-leaning political orientation, and lower levels of moral conservatism consistently correlated with higher support for feminism. Crucially, in these models, once the influence of other ideological beliefs was statistically accounted for, gender identity salience showed no significant independent effects on predicting support for feminism. This reinforces the idea that broader ideological frameworks are primary drivers of feminist support, potentially mediating or moderating the role of identity salience.

4. Discussion

4.1. Ideological Beliefs, Identity Salience, and Feminist Support

• The study's findings strongly suggest that support for feminism serves not merely as a standalone attitude, but rather as a robust marker for broader and deeper ideological beliefs within individuals. There was a particularly strong and significant link identified between holding environmental values and expressing support for feminism. This connection suggests a shared underlying value system that prioritizes justice, equity, and a critical perspective on existing power structures that affect both social and ecological well-being.

4.2. Gendered Patterns and Multi-Identity Dynamics

• The research highlighted distinct gendered patterns in feminist alignment. Women generally expressed more coherent and consistent patterns of feminist support, where their gender identity and ideological stances tended to align more seamlessly with feminist principles. Among men, however, the relationship between gender identity salience and support for feminism was considerably less straightforward, suggesting more complex psychological and social dynamics at play for male engagement with feminist ideas. This indicates the utility of a multi-identity lens to understand varied relationships with feminism.

4.3. Implications for Social Sustainability, Education, and Policy

• The findings offer significant implications for fostering social sustainability, informing educational strategies, and guiding public policy. Recommendations include calls for embedding gender equality principles within broader educational curricula and civic frameworks. This should emphasize the critical role of comprehensive ideological frameworks—beyond just gender—in effectively propelling gender justice and achieving the goals of SDG 5. Educational initiatives should cultivate prosocial values and critical thinking about societal inequalities.

4.4. Limitations and Future Research

• The discussion also addressed several limitations of the present study. These included constraints concerning causal inference due to the cross-sectional nature of the survey data, meaning direct cause-and-effect relationships cannot be definitively established. Limitations regarding the specific identity measurements used were also noted. For future research, the authors recommend the urgent need for longitudinal studies to track changes over time and establish causal links more robustly. They also suggest the inclusion of behavioral dimensions of feminist engagement, moving beyond self-reported attitudes to assess actual collective action or advocacy.

5. Conclusions

• In conclusion, the study's robust findings suggest a strong and consistent connection between individuals' overarching In conclusion, the study finds a strong link between individuals' ideological orientations (e.g., political leaning, moral conservatism), their environmental commitment, and support for feminism. It emphasizes the need for a multi-identity approach to understanding and fostering engagement with feminist movements, recognizing that support for feminism is tied to broader identity and values, not just gender.

Author Contributions

• Conceptualization: A.B.F.-T. was primarily responsible for the foundational ideas and theoretical framework of the research.

• Methodology: J.G. played a key role in designing the research methods and analytical strategy.

• Writing: A.B.F.-T. was the principal author responsible for drafting the manuscript.

• Supervision: M.M.-R. and

5. Conclusions