Chapter 2 Outline: Notes

Basic terms and Definition (not on flashcards)

Glands

(A) Exocrine glands secrete their chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body. (B) Endocrine glands pour their secretions directly into the bloodstream.

Body Systems and Related Organs

A organ is a somewhat independent part of the body that performs a specific function. For purposes of description, the related tissues and organs are described as being organized into body systems with specialized functions. These body systems are explained in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1.

Major Body Systems

Disease Transmission

Pathogen

A disease-producing microorganism such as a virus. Transmission is the spread of a disease. Contamination means that a pathogen is possibly present. Contamination occurs through a lack of proper hygiene standards or by failure to take appropriate infection control precautions.

Communicable disease

a contagious disease, is any condition that is transmitted from one person to another either directly or by indirect contact with contaminated objects. Communicable means capable of being transmitted. Some diseases, such as measles, are capable of being transmitted through multiple methods.

Direct transmission

occurs when there is human-to-human contact in the form of touch or the exchange of bodily fluids.

Blood borne transmission

The spread of pathogens through infected blood or other body fluids. These infected fluids must enter the bloodstream to cause infection. Examples include human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B, and most sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).

Droplet transmission

The spread of infected respiratory droplets sprayed by coughing or sneezing onto a nearby person, which can transmit diseases such as measles, cold, COVID-19, and flu. The use of a face mask as a precaution helps limit this type of transmission, which is one cause of nosocomial (hospital acquired) infections.

Indirect contact transmission

occurs in situations in which a susceptible person is infected by contact with a contaminated surface. Frequent hand washing is essential for the prevention of disease transmission.

Airborne transmission

occurs through contact with pathogens floating in the air. When someone coughs or sneezes, certain micro particles can remain airborne for a long period of time, traveling up to 1 meter and exposing someone even after the infected person is gone.

Examples include tuberculosis, measles, COVID-19 and chicken pox.

The spread of pathogens via aerosol particles is especially concerning in healthcare settings during aerosol-generating procedures such as endotracheal intubation or open suctioning. An aerosol is a fine liquid particle suspended in air or another gas.

Food-borne and waterborne transmission

also known as fecal-oral transmission, is caused by eating or drinking contaminated food or water that has not been properly treated to remove contamination or kill any pathogens present.

Vector-borne transmission

An insect bite, is the spread of certain disease through blood-sucking vectors. As used here, the term vector describes insects such as flies, mites, fleas, and ticks. Mosquitoes are the most common vectors, and the diseases they transmit include malaria and West Nile virus.

Syndrome

a set of signs and symptoms that occur together as part of a specific disease process. Some conditions, such as Down syndrome and fetal alcohol syndrome, include this term in their name.

• Metabolic syndrome is a common medical condition characterized by risk factors for developing heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes. These factors may include elevated blood pressure, central adiposity (excessive fat in the abdomen), high insulin levels in the blood, and high cholesterol and triglyceride levels.

Advance Directives

Advance directives are documents used to provide guidance about what types of treatment a person may want to receive in case of an unknown future medical emergency. They can also state who is authorized to make healthcare decisions if a person cannot do so themselves.

Health Care Proxy (HCP),

also referred to as a durable power of attorney for health care, is an advance directive allowing the person to appoint a trusted person, such as a family member of close friend, to make treatment decisions should the patient be unable make them.

living will

also known as Physician’s Orders for Life-Sustaining Treatment (POLST), is a document that allows a person to state their wishes for end-of-life medical care, in case they become unable to communicate their decisions.

Do Not Resuscitate order (DNR)

also known as no code or allow natural death, is a legal document stating that a person does not wish to receive cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) if a patient’s heart or breathing stop. This advance directive is sometimes put in place near the end of life, or when a patient has a terminal illness with no possibility of a cure.

Health Care Professionals

Health care professionals caring for the well being of patients during their lifetime include doctors, nurses, administrative staff, and allied health professionals. Allied health professions include roles outside of medicine, nursing, and pharmacy. Allied health professionals are an essential part of health care teams, and include dental hygienists, emergency medical technicians (EMTs), medical interpreters, nutritionists, physical therapists, mental health practitioners, phlebotomists, x-ray technicians, and respiratory therapists.

In many medical office or clinic settings, the following health care specialists work as a primary care provider (PCP):

general practitioner (GP)

or family practice physician, provides ongoing care for patients of all ages.

internist

a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating diseases and disorders of the internal organs and related body systems.

pediatrician

a physician who specializes in diagnosing, treating, and preventing disorders and diseases of infants and children. This specialty is known as pediatrics (ped means child and -iatrics means a field of medicine).

geriatrician / gerontologist

a physician who specializes in the care of older people (Figure 2.11). Geriatrics is the branch of medicine relating to the health of older adults (ger means old age and -iatrics means field of medicine).

nurse practitioner (NP)

a nurse with graduate training who often works as a primary care provider.

physician assistant (PA)

a licensed professional who works under the supervision of a physician. NPs and PAs also work in hospital and other health care settings and usually have a master’s degree.

medical receptionist

schedules and registers patients for appointments and may also work as a medical assistant.

medical assistant / clinical medical assistant

performs administrative and clinical tasks in a doctor’s office, such as coding patients’ medical information, measuring a patient’s vital signs, administering injections, and drawing blood. Medical assistants also work in long-term care facilities caring for the elderly.

certified medical assistant (CMA)

a medical assistant certified through the American Association of Medical Assistants.

medical coder

reviews patients’ medical records for insurance purposes, assigning codes for treatment and services based on universal alphanumeric codes for medical diagnoses, equipment, and procedures. Alphanumeric means consisting of both letters and number.

emergency physician

a doctor who specializes in high-acuity medicine in the ER. Acuity refers to the level of severity of an illness.

emergency medical technician (EMT)

a licensed health care professional who works in a pre-hospital setting on an ambulance, or in an emergency room.

registered nurse (RN)

a licensed health care professional who works in a variety of health care settings. RNs assess patients and provide care following a doctor’s orders.

licensed vocational nurse (LVN)

also known as a licensed practical nurse (LPN) in certain states, works under the supervision of a doctor or RN to provide basic patient care.

certified nursing assistant (CNA)

works under the supervision of a RN to provide basic patient care.

pharmacist

a licensed medical professional who dispenses prescribed medication to patients (see Chapter 15).

intensivist

a physician specializing in the care of critically ill patients hospitalized in the ICU.

hospitalist

a physician focusing on the general medical care of hospitalized patients.

Health Care Settings

intensive care unit (ICU)

also called a critical care unit, provides continuously monitored care for critically ill patients. Some hospitals have specialized ICUs for burn and trauma patients, cardiac patients, or neurological patients.

emergency room (ER)

also called an emergency department, focuses on diagnosing and treating life-threatening emergency medical conditions. Patients are triaged (see Chapter 1) by nursing staff before receiving additional care. Critically ill patients are treated first.

telemetry unit

provides continuous cardiac monitoring for patients with heart problems not requiring intensive care (tele means distant; -metry means to measure). The term telemetry refers to the electronic transmission of data about the patient’s heart rhythm.

medical/surgical unit (med/surg)

provides nursing care for lower-acuity patients who are recovering from surgery or require continued drug therapy or monitoring.

Abbreviations Related to the Human Body in Health and Disease

Table 2.2 presents an overview of the abbreviations related to the terms introduced in this chapter. Note: To avoid errors or confusion, always be cautious when using abbreviations.

Table 2.2

Abbreviations Related to the Human Body in Health and Disease