UNIT 4 AP NOTES

Electoral Systems and Rules

  • Electoral rules and systems vary across regimes.

    • Some regimes structure them for competitive selection.

    • Others frequently change them to advance political interests.

Electoral Systems in Different Countries

  • China:

    • The National People's Congress (NPC) selects members indirectly through local and regional elections.

    • The executive is appointed by the NPC.

  • Iran:

    • Majles (parliament) members are directly elected in single-member and multi-member districts, sometimes requiring a second round of voting.

    • Candidates are vetted by the Guardian Council.

    • The legislative body lacks formal political party structures.

    • A small number of the 290 seats are reserved for non-Muslim minorities.

  • Mexico:

    • Congress has two chambers:

      • Chamber of Deputies:

        • 300 members directly elected in single-member districts by plurality.

        • 200 members elected by proportional representation (party list system).

      • Chamber of Senators:

        • 96 members elected in three-seat constituencies.

        • 32 by proportional representation.

    • Gender quotas in the party list system have increased female representation.

  • Nigeria:

    • House of Representatives:

      • Members are directly elected in single-member districts.

      • The number of representatives per state is based on population size.

    • Senate:

      • Three members directly elected from each of Nigeria's 36 states.

    • Two major parties have alternated control of the National Assembly.

  • Russia:

    • Changes to State Duma elections have returned it to a system where:

      • Half of the representatives are directly elected from single-member districts.

      • The other half are chosen through proportional representation with a threshold.

  • UK:

    • House of Commons members are directly elected under single-member district, first-past-the-post rules.

Electoral Terms

  • Plurality:

    • The most votes wins.

    • Also known as first-past-the-post or winner-take-all.

  • Majority:

    • Requires over 50% of the vote to win.

  • Single-member districts:

    • Districts where only one representative wins.

    • Tend to be plurality elections.

  • Multi-member districts:

    • Two or more representatives per district.

  • First-past-the-post elections:

    • Whoever has the most votes wins the election.

  • Proportional representation:

    • Seats are based on the proportion of votes.

    • Uses MMDs, party lists, and thresholds to determine winners and seats.

  • Majority or run-off election:

    • If no candidate wins 50% of the vote, a run-off election is held between the top 2 vote-getters.

Objectives of Election Rules

  • Types of electoral systems and rules can determine party systems and power.

  • Proportional representation (PR) elections can:

    • Increase the number of political parties.

    • Increase the number of seats for minority and women candidates.

  • Single-member district plurality systems tend to promote two-party systems, provide voters with strong constituency service and accountability (single representative per district), and ensure geographic representation.

Presidential Election Systems

  • Different presidential election systems have different rules for determining election winners.

  • Mexico:

    • The president is elected by a plurality of the national popular vote, not a majority.

  • Nigeria:

    • Must win the most votes and secure at least 25 percent of the vote in two-thirds of Nigeria's states.

    • Reflects the federal characteristic of this regime.

  • Russia and Iran:

    • Must win an absolute majority of the popular vote in either the first or second round of national voting.

    • If no candidate wins an absolute majority in the first round, the second round is conducted between the top two vote-earners.

Electoral Regulatory Organizations

  • Different political systems use electoral regulatory organizations to set various rules about ballot access and competition.

  • Iran:

    • The Guardian Council excludes reform-minded candidates or those who do not support Islamic values from the ballot.

    • This limits the number of candidates and reduces electoral competition and representation.

  • Nigeria and Mexico:

    • Created independent election commissions that attempt to reduce voter fraud and manipulation and enhance electoral competition.

  • Russia:

    • Limits presidential competition with strict requirements to run for executive (need party representation in Duma).

Appointment Systems

  • Some regimes use an appointment system for membership in legislative bodies to promote a diversity of viewpoints, while others use it to advance the political agenda of governing elites.

  • Iran:

    • Half of Iran's Guardian Council members are selected by the Supreme Leader.

    • Half are nominees from the judiciary with Majles approval.

  • UK:

    • Appointments for the House of Lords are approved by the monarch with recommendations made by the prime minister and an independent commission.

  • Russia:

    • Appointment of Federation Council is done by regional governors and the regional legislature.

    • The creation of nine federal districts (with the annexation of Crimea) has reasserted federal power under the Russian president by allowing him to appoint leaders to the districts and allowing regional legislatures to forgo elections and appoint a governor from a list of candidates approved by the president.

Political Party Systems

  • Party systems and membership differ among course countries, ranging from dominant party systems to multi-party systems.

Types of Party Systems

  • One-party system:

    • Only one party can hold political power.

  • One-party dominant:

    • One party wins power in the executive and a majority of the legislature.

    • Smaller parties win seats in the legislature.

  • Two-party system:

    • Two major parties compete for power in the executive and legislative branches.

  • Multi-party system:

    • Three or more parties compete for power.

Party Systems in Different Countries

  • China:

    • Rules allow only one party, the Communist Party of China, to control governing power to maintain the values of centralism and order.

    • Eight other parties are allowed to exist to broaden discussion and consultation.

  • Russia:

    • Rules ensuring one-party dominance for United Russia include:

      • Increasing party registration requirements.

      • Allowing only legally registered parties to run for office.

      • Using selective court decisions to disqualify candidates.

      • Limiting the ability of political opposition to present their viewpoints in the media.

      • Increasing threshold rules to limit party access to the ballot.

      • Eliminating gubernatorial elections.

  • Mexico:

    • Rules that led to the transition away from one-party dominance include:

      • Eliminating el dedazo (the practice of the president hand-picking his successor).

      • Privatizing state-owned corporations to decrease patronage.

      • Decentralizing and reducing one-party power at the subnational level.

      • Establishing and strengthening the National Electoral Institute (IFE).

  • Catch-all political parties:

    • Can earn support from groups with different characteristics, attracting popular support with ideologically diverse platforms.

Role of Political Party Systems

  • Party systems vary across the course countries in terms of rules governing elections, party structure, and laws regulating political parties.

  • China:

    • The Communist Party of China (CPC) has controlled the government and military since 1949, while minor parties have limited power to fill minor political offices.

  • Iran:

    • Lacks formal political party structures.

  • Mexico:

    • A multi-party system is dominated by:

      • National Regeneration Movement (MORENA)

      • National Action Party (PAN)

      • Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD)

      • Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)

    • Parties are allowed to form coalitions to nominate candidates for any particular election.

  • Russia:

    • One party has been dominating recent elections.

    • Diminished representation of smaller parties occurs because of changing threshold rules.

    • The elimination and then reinstatement of single-member districts has affected regional parties and the representation of independent candidates.

  • Nigeria:

    • Multiple parties with ethnic quotas affect representation in the country's federal legislature.

  • UK:

    • Two large parties (Labour and Conservative) dominate the House of Commons.

    • Single-member district plurality elections diminish minor party representation.

    • Single-member districts allow regional parties to win legislative seats (Scottish National Party).

Current Parties in Power

  1. China: China Communist Party (CCP)

  2. Russia: United Russia

  3. Mexico: MORENA

  4. Nigeria: All Progressives Congress (APC)

  5. UK: Conservative

Social Movements and Interest Groups

  • Social movements:

    • Involve large groups of people pushing collectively for significant political or social change.

  • Interest groups:

    • Explicitly organized to represent and advocate for a specific interest or policy issue.

    • Social movements represent multiple groups and individuals advocating for broad social change.

  • Social movements across course countries have put pressure on the state to promote indigenous civil rights, redistribute revenues from key exports such as oil, conduct fair and transparent elections, and ensure fair treatment of citizens of different sexual orientations, including:

    • Green Movement in Iran: protested corruption in elections.

    • Current women's movement in Iran over wearing of hijab and economic issues.

    • Zapatistas in Mexico: in response to socioeconomic inequality and the negative impact of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

    • Mexico women's movement in response to violence against women.

    • Nigeria:

      • Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) and the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP), Niger Delta Avengers: advocate for the rights of an ethnic minority or protest against unjust methods of extraction and distribution of oil in the Niger Delta region.

      • Boko Haram in Nigeria: attempting to establish an Islamic state in northern Nigeria.

    • Domestic protests over the Russian State Duma's passage of legislation against same-sex couples.

Pluralist and Corporatist Interests

  • Pluralism and corporatism are systems of interest group representation.

  • Pluralist systems:

    • Promote competition among autonomous groups not linked to the state.

    • Less state control over civil society.

  • Corporatist systems:

    • Government controls access to policymaking by relying on state-sanctioned groups or single peak associations (SPAs) to represent labor, business, and agricultural sectors.

    • More state control.

  • Interest group systems can change over time, as represented by Mexico moving from a corporatist system toward a pluralist system.