The Rise of the Persian Empire

Housekeeping Items

• Class Schedule: Only one day together this week, due to a meeting in Denver on Thursday.

  • Students need to manage their own study plans for the remaining days of the week.

  • Mention of email and Canvas notifications about this schedule change.

• Graded Assignments:

  • Polo quiz moved to Tuesday, September 30.

  • First MAP exam scheduled for today, with an implicit reminder for students to be attentive and prepared.

Overview of Historical Content

• Focus of Today's Lesson: Exploration of the ancient Persian civilization, one of the most significant outside China and India.

  • Significance: Covered vast territories, influencing diverse cultures and laying groundwork for future empires.

  • Preparation to compare with other ancient civilizations.

  • Comparative Analysis Goal: To understand commonalities and unique characteristics in governance, culture, and innovation.

The Origins of the Persians

• Cultural Background: The Persians originated from Indo-European pastoralists from the steppes of Western Russia and Eastern Europe.

  • Ancestral Roots: Part of a larger wave of Indo-European migrations across Eurasia.

  • Linguistic Ties: Their language (Old Persian) is part of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family.

• Migration and Expansion: Descent and movements into Europe and the Middle East, influencing civilizations like the Hittites and expanding into regions like India.

  • Settlement in Iran: Arrived on the Iranian plateau around the first millennium BCE.

  • Early Impact: Contributed to the cultural mosaic of the ancient Near East.

• Key Groups: The Medes and the Persians invaded what is now Iran, targeting isolated agricultural settlements due to the lack of major rivers like those in Iraq or along the Eastern Mediterranean Sea.

  • Geographic Challenge: Iran's arid landscape necessitated reliance on scattered water sources.

  • Strategic Targeting: Isolated settlements were often less fortified and easier to dominate, providing immediate access to resources.

The Irrigation System: The Qanat

• Water Challenges: Early inhabitants of Iran faced significant water scarcity.

  • Problem: Scarce surface water and reliance on unreliable rainfall.

  • The Qanat system emerged as a pivotal solution for agriculture—innovative irrigation to transport groundwater via tunnels from mountain springs to flat plains.

  • Engineering marvel: Tunnels were carefully dug with a gentle slope to allow water to flow by gravity.

  • Construction: Involved numerous vertical access shafts for maintenance and air circulation.

  • Functionality: Tapped into underground aquifers in foothills and brought water to arid plains for irrigation and domestic use.

  • Tunnels required careful engineering to balance the grade and ensure proper water flow.

  • Precision: Maintaining a consistent, slight gradient over long distances was crucial for preventing stagnation or excessive erosion.

  • Many Qanat systems still operational today bear witness to their sophisticated design and engineering capabilities, going back over three millennia.

  • Longevity: A testament to their sustainable design and robust construction.

  • Cultural Heritage: Many are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

• Comparison to Modern Systems: Draw parallels with contemporary water diversion efforts in Colorado, highlighting the long-standing importance of managing water resources.

  • Modern Relevance: Emphasizes that water management infrastructure has always been critical for human civilization.

  • Technological Continuity: Modern aqueducts and pipeline systems share the fundamental goal of water transport, albeit with different technologies.

Analyzing the Medes and Persians

• Rise of the Medes: Initially more successful in agriculture, leading to population growth and regional dominance.

  • Early Power: Established the first major empire on the Iranian plateau.

  • Political Structure: Controlled smaller states through tribute and alliances.

• Cyrus the Great: Key figure in Persian history; he led a revolt against the Medes, resulting in the Persians overthrowing them and establishing their dominance.

  • Unification: United the Persian tribes and then successfully challenged Median rule.

  • Military Prowess: Known for brilliant military campaigns and rapid expansion.

• Conquest and Administration: Cyrus was renowned for his approach, allowing conquered peoples to maintain their religions and cultural practices, introducing a degree of tolerance in governance.

  • Policy of Tolerance: A strategic move that reduced rebellions and fostered loyalty.

  • Religious Freedom: Explicitly mentioned in historical accounts like the 'Cyrus Cylinder'.

  • Local Rule: Allowed local elites to retain power in exchange for loyalty and tribute.

• Second Major City: Establishment of Pasargad as the new capital—practical and functional, contrasting with the grandiose structures of past civilizations.

  • Design Principles: Reflected functionality over ostentatious display, though still symbolically significant.

  • Location: Chosen for strategic reasons and its central position within the newly expanded empire.

Cambyses II and Further Expansion

• Cambyses II: Son of Cyrus, he continued the expansionist policies, notably invading Egypt and using cultural novelties to intimidate.

  • Egyptian Conquest (525 BCE): A major military achievement, bringing a rich and ancient civilization under Persian control.

  • Psychological Warfare: Legend claims he used cats, sacred to Egyptians, in the front lines to deter their forces.

• Military Strategies: His lack of diplomatic tact, unlike his father, caused conflicts but ultimately led to further Persian expansion.

  • Ruthlessness: Less forgiving towards rebellious provinces than Cyrus.

  • Legacy: Despite his controversial rule, he significantly expanded the empire's borders.

Darius I: Administration and Infrastructure

• Civic Administration: Established a divided province system akin to a federation, enabling more localized governance while maintaining direct control.

  • Satrapies: Divided the empire into around 20 administrative units called satrapies.

  • Satraps: Each satrapy was governed by a satrap (governor) appointed by the king, often a Persian noble.

  • Checks and Balances: Introduced royal inspectors, 'the King's Eyes and Ears,' to prevent corruption and maintain loyalty.

• Transportation and Communication: Development of an extensive road network to facilitate movement and trade across the vast empire and the establishment of a postal service, increasing communication efficiency.

  • Royal Road: The most famous example, stretching over 2,500 kilometers from Susa to Sardis, crucial for rapid communication and troop movement.

  • Postal System: Relay stations along the Royal Road with fresh horses and riders ensured quick message delivery.

• Naval Power: Initiated the creation of a Persian Navy to secure trade routes and expand maritime capabilities.

  • Strategic Importance: Controlled sea lanes in the Mediterranean and Aegean, essential for trade and projecting power.

  • Fleet Composition: Utilized maritime expertise from conquered peoples like the Phoenicians and Egyptians.

• Capital City Persepolis: Constructed as a grand representation of the empire, incorporating various architectural styles and serving as a symbol of unity and strength.

  • Architectural Eclecticism: Reflected the diverse peoples and cultures within the empire through its monumental art and architecture.

  • Ceremonial Center: Primarily used for official receptions, festivals, and coronation ceremonies.

Persistent Emphases and Governance

• Cultural Pluralism: Darius continued Cyrus's policy of tolerance—administrative flexibility in religious observances and local governance while ensuring taxes were collected.

  • Respect for Local Customs: Allowed diverse ethnic groups to practice their own traditions, reducing friction.

  • Economic Integration: Standardized coinage (the Daric) and weights and measures facilitated trade across the empire.

• Comparative Analysis: Analogies to the United States’ interstate system and its dual purpose of military movement and facilitating commerce.

  • Modern Parallel: Highlights how infrastructure serves both defensive and economic roles in large states.

• Military and Economic Unity: Regularly reinforced the integrity and effectiveness of the empire, promoting trade that benefited local economies.

  • Standing Army: Maintained a professional army, including the Immortals, to suppress revolts and defend borders.

  • Economic Prosperity: Peace and secure trade routes led to flourishing economies throughout the empire.

The Clash with Greek City-States

• Background: During the period of Persian dominance, Greece was politically fragmented into independent city-states (poleis), often at war with one another.

  • Political Landscape: No unified 'Greece' but a collection of fiercely independent city-states with varied governments.

  • Internal Conflicts: Frequent rivalries and limited cooperation among city-states.

• Greek Colonization: Economic pressures led to colonization efforts; established colonies depending on their respective origins, maintaining loyalty to original city-states.

  • Reasons for Colonization: Population growth, land scarcity, and desire for trade routes.

  • Ionian Greeks: Many Greek colonies in Asia Minor were under Persian rule, a source of tension.

• Invasion and Response: Greek city-states, despite internal conflicts, provoked a war with Persia, yet faced overwhelming military opposition. The Persians aimed to punish rather than permanently conquer these divided and hostile regions.

  • Ionian Revolt (499 BCE): A major catalyst, supported by Athens and Eretria, drawing Persian attention to mainland Greece.

  • Persian Objectives: Primarily punitive expeditions to deter further interference and secure strategic borders, not necessarily full annexation of mainland Greece.

Aftermath of the Persian Wars

• Greek Resilience: The Greeks endured Persian attacks, mirroring the concept of survival against odds rather than outright victory, leading to future unity against common threats.

  • Key Battles: Marathon (490 BCE), Thermopylae and Salamis (480 BCE), Plataea (479 BCE) demonstrated Greek determination.

  • Sense of Identity: The wars fostered a nascent sense of shared 'Greekness' against a common 'barbarian' enemy.

• Rebuilding and Reflection: After suffering devastation, cities like Athens began monumental rebuilding, concluding that unity amidst diversity was paramount for stability and progress.

  • Athenian Power: Athens emerged as a dominant naval power, leading the Delian League.

  • Architectural Boom: The city used tribute from its allies to fund ambitious reconstruction projects.

Iconic Monuments: The Parthenon

• Cultural Heightening in Athens: Asserting independence through the construction of significant public works, including the Parthenon, dedicated to the city's patron goddess, Athena.

  • Symbol of Power: Demonstrated Athens' wealth, artistic prowess, and religious devotion.

  • Architectural Masterpiece: A Doric temple with intricate sculptural decoration, embodying classical Greek artistic ideals.

• Represents a shift towards self-celebration post-Persian threat, showcasing artistic grandeur and religious significance.

  • Periclean Age: Built during the leadership of Pericles, symbolizing Athens' Golden Age.

Conclusion of the Lecture

• Political Fragility in Greece: Continued internal strife led to external instability; Persian involvement persisted to maintain chaos for their amusement and strategic interests.

  • Peloponnesian War: The conflict between Athens and Sparta, often fueled by Persian funds to prolong Greek disunity.

  • Strategic Manipulation: Persian strategy to keep Greek city-states weak and divided, preventing a unified threat.

• Next Lesson Focus: How these conflicts foreshadowed future developments in Greek history, particularly surrounding the events following the Peloponnesian War.

  • Long-term Impact: The Persian Wars and subsequent Greek conflicts set the stage for the rise of Macedon.

• Reminder about no class on Thursday; reconvening next week to continue exploration of ancient civilizations and their legacies.