ANTH 204: 3.2

Introduction to Archaeological Approaches to Drugs

  • Speaker: Augusta Onyeka

  • Date: 09/05/2025

Agenda

  • How/why do archaeologists study drugs

  • Types of drug evidence:

    • Residue analysis

    • Material association

    • Context association

  • Theoretical framework

    • Materiality of intoxication

    • Theory of religion

  • Case studies from:

    • Central Andes

    • West Africa

    • Colonial Chesapeake

  • Examples of drugs in archaeological contexts:

    • Psychedelic drugs

    • Bodily fluids

    • Alcohol in ancient Egyptian rituals

What is Archaeology?

  • Definition: A branch of anthropology that studies, describes, and reconstructs past human cultures and societies through:

    • Material Culture

    • Human Remains

    • Environmental Evidence

What is “Drug” in Archaeology?

  • Definition: Drugs in archaeology are considered material culture rather than mere chemical substances.

  • Characteristics of drugs in this context include:

    • Made and used by humans

    • Substances that alter the state of consciousness, including:

    • Ritual

    • Medicinal

    • Healing

    • Recreational

    • Notable aspects:

    • Cross-cultural variability

    • Sacred plants/objects

    • Controlled substances

Why Study Drugs Archaeologically?

  • Understanding the role of drugs helps in:

    • Identifying the ritual practices, norms, and values of a society

    • Revealing evidence of cultural changes in societies

    • Analyzing social identity and community structures

    • Examining economic practices

    • Exploring power relations and colonial encounters

Theoretical Framework

  • Materiality of Intoxication:

    • Examines objects that enable consumption, such as:

    • Pipes

    • Vessels

    • Snuff trays

    • Analysis of chemicals in drugs affecting mental state.

  • Role of material evidence in drug production, consumption, storage, and trafficking includes:

    • Direct Evidence

    • Indirect Evidence

    • Example: King Esarhaddon of Assyria and his “hemp tree of life” (680 BC)

Theory of Religion

  • Emile Durkheim (1858–1917):

    • Argued that religion is primarily a social construct.

    • Religion emphasizes collective practices that reinforce social solidarity rather than just beliefs in the supernatural.

  • Use of substances as sacred:

    • Drug containers, specific locations, and related paraphernalia mark substances as ritually unique.

    • Archaeologists materialize social structures established by drug use, e.g.:

    • Hallucinogens in initiation ceremonies identified through specific tools like snuff trays.

    • Traces of ayahuasca or fermented drinks found at ceremonial sites illustrate substance use in reinforcing social cohesion.

  • Mention of King Esarhaddon illustrates historical contexts of drug use.

Archaeological Approaches to Drugs

  • Types of Evidence:

    • Material Evidence:

    • Plant remains

    • Pipes, snuff trays, drinking vessels, fermentation jars

    • Residue Analysis:

    • Testing for psychoactive compounds such as:

      • Nicotine

      • Coca

      • Cannabis

      • Alcohol

      • Mescaline

    • Contextual Analysis:

    • Investigating ritual spaces, burials, feasting contexts, healing spaces.

    • Symbolic Meaning:

    • Drugs acting as mediators between humans and spirits;

    • Associations of sacralization and social cohesion.

Case Study I: Psychoactive Plant Use in the Central Andes

  • Research by Constantino Torres—investigation of archaeological evidence for ancient use of psychoactive plants.

  • Overview and findings include:

    • Identification of archaeological evidence through:

    • Plant remains:

      • Anadenanthera seeds found in Northwest Argentina and Northern Chile, dated to:

      • 2130 B.C. (Argentina)

      • 1450 B.C. (Chile)

      • Tobacco and Ilex guayusa leaves excavated at Niño Korin, Bolivia.

    • Materiality:

    • Snuffing paraphernalia such as:

      • Snuff trays, tubes, spatulas, and leather pouches holding snuff powder

      • Whale bone trays and bird bone tubes from Peru, dated to:

      • 1200 B.C.

      • Wooden snuff trays from Niño Korin, dated to:

      • A.D. 355–1120

    • Significance of Smoking Pipes:

    • Found made of bone, ceramic, or stone in various archaeological sites like Inca Cueva and Huachichocana.

Case Study I (continued): Art and Chemical Analysis

  • Artwork:

    • Monumental stone sculptures and mortars indicating ritual use of psychoactive plants.

    • Paintings and representations connected with psychoactive plants.

  • Chemical Analysis:

    • Examination of snuff powders revealing:

    • Psychoactive alkaloids like:

      • DMT (dimethyltryptamine)

      • Bufotenine

      • 5-methoxy-DMT

    • Presence of bufotenine in Anadenanthera seeds.

    • Harmine as a major psychoactive compound found in Banisteriopsis caapi vine, essential for ayahuasca.

    • Cocaine and benzoylecgonine derived from coca leaves (Erythroxylum coca).

    • Psilocin found in specific fungi types.

Implications of the Study

  • Approximately 20-22% usage of snuff powders among the male population from the 3rd to the 10th centuries A.D.

  • The significance of psychoactive plant usage implies:

    • Influential in the development of Precolumbian Andean ideologies.

    • Commitment of indigenous individuals in preserving powerful hallucinogens as communal heritage.

Case Study II: Kolanut in West Africa

  • Kolanut:

    • Fruity stimulants: Cola acuminata and Cola nitida historically significant in West Africa.

    • Found in various contexts:

    • Rituals

    • Shrines

    • Grave goods

    • Commonly associated with kola plates (okwa-oji) and white chalk (Nzu).

  • Ritual & Religious Significance:

    • Used in community rituals and for ancestral veneration.

  • Purpose in society:

    • Used by diviners and elders to communicate with the spiritual realm.

    • Symbol of hospitality, oaths, and divination.

    • Sharing kolanut represents social bonding and sacred obligation.

Colonial America and Tobacco

  • Historical Context:

    • Tobacco and sugar demand were critical driving forces behind the emergence of colonial America.

  • Tobacco is acknowledged as a stimulant;

  • Sugar is appreciated for providing quick energy and sweetness.

Case Study III: Tobacco in the Colonial Chesapeake

  • Overview:

    • Indigenous Americans farmed tobacco extensively.

    • By early 1500s, tobacco smoking gained popularity in Europe.

    • Tobacco from Virginia became crucial to the economy until the 1700s.

    • Evolution of tobacco transitioned from sacred use by Indigenous peoples to commodification.

Case Study III (cont.): Tobacco Evolution

  • Sacred vs. Commodification:

    • Tobacco pipes held sacred meaning for Indigenous Americans, involved in:

    • Rituals

    • Diplomatic processes

    • Shift in usage due to colonial influences, leading to individualistic consumption.

  • Archaeological Indicators:

    • Indicators including monocrop fields, deforestation, and burned bushes observed in the landscape.

    • Distinct pipe styles signify cultural shifts. (shift in pipes)

    • Historical records, oral traditions, and skeletal analysis provided deeper insight.

Case Study III (cont.): Archaeological Evidence

  • Artifacts:

    • Pipes categorized as:

    • Broken, mended, and discarded.

    • Associated farm implements found.

    • Bodily Traces:

    • Evidence of habitual usage:

      • Nicotine stains on teeth and lips noted.

      • Pipe notches visible on teeth through bioarchaeological methods.

    • Indicators of nutritional deficiencies and health challenges related to tobacco use observed.

    • Economic aspects:

    • Documented evidence links tobacco boom to wage payments, taxes, and affluent lifestyles of Virginia elites.

    • Population growth correlating with tobacco practices noted.

Perception of Psychoactive Substances

  • Current lines of inquiry involve understanding present drug sociality in relation to future archaeological assessments.

Conclusion

  • Key Takeaways:

    • Archaeologists also research drugs as part of their practice.

    • Insights gained from drug studies inform the understanding, description, and reconstruction of human societies and cultures.

    • Main approaches employed:

    • Material culture

    • Human remains

    • Residual analysis

    • Context analysis

    • Symbolism

Acknowledgments

  • Expression of gratitude to the audience for their attention.

  • Invitation for questions.