Emotional Development and Attachment

Emotional Development

Chapter 11

Attachment
Emotional Development
Temperament
Personality Development

Attachment

Definition

  • Attachment refers to a strong emotional bond that develops between an infant and their caregiver.
  • This bond is characterized by its bidirectional nature, meaning both the caregiver and the infant actively shape the relationship.

Mechanisms of Attachment

  • Interaction: The dynamic interplay between the caregiver and the infant.
  • Dyadic Synchrony: A coordinated interaction where the behaviors of the baby and caregiver are in tune, leading to mutual responsiveness.

Origins of Attachment

Theoretical Perspectives

  1. Learning Theory
       - This theory posits that attachment behaviors are learned through interactions with caregivers, using mechanisms like reinforcement.
       - Primary Reinforcers: Basic needs (hunger, comfort) that when satisfied, create attachment.
       - Secondary Reinforcers: Associated stimuli (e.g., affection) that strengthen attachment bonds over time.

  2. Cognitive Developmental Theory
       - Focuses on the child’s developmental stages, particularly the understanding of object permanence which plays a key role in attachment.

  3. Ethological Theory (John Bowlby)
       - Emphasizes the biological basis of attachment as a means of survival, where attachment behaviors are instinctive and adaptive.
       - Highlights the need for protection and emphasizes environmental competence.

Harlow & Zimmerman (1959) Study

Methodology

  • Conducted experiments with monkeys to understand attachment behavior.
  • Infants were raised with two types of surrogate mothers:
       1. Terry-cloth surrogate mother: A soft, comforting substitute.
       2. Wire-mesh surrogate mother: A more utilitarian but less comforting option.

Findings

  • Monkeys showed a strong preference for the terry-cloth mother, exemplifying the importance of comfort in attachment over the basic provision of food.

Measuring Attachment

Key Indicators

  1. Separation Anxiety: Level of distress shown by infants when separated from their primary caregiver.
  2. Stranger Anxiety: The fear or apprehension infants experience in the presence of unfamiliar individuals.
  3. Reunion Behavior: Reactions during the reunion with the caregiver, indicating the strength of the attachment bond.
  4. Exploratory Behavior: The eagerness of infants to explore their environment, often dependent on the presence of the caregiver.

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation

Structure of the Experiment

  1. Introduction: The experimenter introduces the parent and baby to a playroom and then leaves.
       - Observation: The baby's willingness to explore is noted.
  2. Stranger Introduction: A stranger enters, sits down, and talks to the parent.
       - Observation: Responses include stranger anxiety.
  3. Parent Departure: The parent leaves the room. The stranger interacts with the baby, offering comfort if upset.
       - Observation: Measures separation anxiety.
  4. Parent Reunion: The parent returns, greets the baby, and provides comfort if necessary, while the stranger leaves.
       - Observation: Reaction to reunion is noted.
  5. Second Separation: The parent leaves again, and the baby’s response is evaluated.
  6. Stranger Comforts Baby: The stranger enters and offers comfort.
       - Observation: Re-evaluation of stranger anxiety.
  7. Final Reunion: The parent returns; observes greetings, comfort offered, and attempts to pique the baby’s interest in toys.
       - Observation: Final reaction to reunion noted.

Categories of Attachment Quality

  1. Secure Attachment (Type B): Infants actively seek contact with the parent upon reunion.
  2. Avoidant Attachment (Type A): Infants are slow to greet the parent upon reunion and may ignore them.
  3. Resistant Attachment (Type C): Infants show anger or resistance towards the parent upon reunion.
  4. Disorganized Attachment (Type D): Infants display the greatest level of insecurity and confusion in behaviors.

Causes of Secure Attachment

Influencing Factors

  1. Parenting Styles:
       - Influences attachment quality significantly through the approaches they take with their children.
  2. Sensitivity, Accessibility, Responsiveness:
       - High levels of these behaviors in caregivers lead to secure attachment.
  3. Synchrony:
       - The matching of responses between caregiver and infant fosters security.
  4. Family Circumstances:
       - Various living conditions and dynamics can impact attachment formation.
  5. Infant Characteristics:
       - Individual differences in health and temperament also affect attachment.

Attachment Classification and Predictive Validity

Outcomes Associated with Secure Attachment

  1. Greater Positive Affect: Infants and children display a positive disposition and emotion.
  2. Better Relationships with Others: Securely attached children tend to forge stronger interpersonal relationships.
  3. Advantages in Cognitive Abilities:
       - Children display enhanced language development and greater persistence in problem-solving tasks.
  4. Greater Exploration Willingness: Secure attachment encourages children to explore unfamiliar environments confidently.

Cultural Variations in Attachment Patterns

Attachment Patterns across Cultures
  • Statistical differences in attachment styles exhibited by infants from various cultural contexts (data visual representation required for comprehension):
      - United States: 80% Secure, 20% Avoidant, 0% Resistant
      - Germany: 70% Secure, 30% Avoidant, 0% Resistant
      - Japan: 60% Secure, 40% Resistant, 0% Avoidant

Child Maltreatment

Consequences of Maltreatment

  • Nonorganic Failure to Thrive: A condition where infants fail to grow or develop normally due to lack of nurturing.
  • Deprivation Dwarfism: Linked to minimal stimulation and emotional care, leading to stunted growth and development.
  • Cognitive Effects: Maltreatment negatively impacts cognitive abilities and emotional health.

What are Emotions?

Components of Emotions

  1. Physiological Aspects:
       - Responses including respiration and heart rate changes.
  2. Behavioral Aspects:
       - Observable reactions such as facial expressions, laughter, or cries.
  3. Conscious Experience:
       - Subjective feelings that are part of the emotional experience.

Emotional Development

Primary Emotions

  • Occurring from birth to the first year of life:
       - Interest
       - Distress
       - Contentment
       - Anger
       - Sadness
       - Joy
       - Surprise
       - Fear
  • These primary emotions are present at birth and develop further in the first year.

Self-Conscious (Secondary/Complex) Emotions

  • Develop during the second year of life:
       - Embarrassment
       - Shame
       - Guilt
       - Envy
       - Pride
  • Require self-recognition and understanding of societal rules and standards.

Theories of Emotional Development

  1. Biological Approach:
       - Argues that emotions are innate, built into human biology.
  2. Behaviourist Approach:
       - Suggests emotions are learned behaviors influenced by interactions with the environment.
  3. Functionist Approach:
       - Posits that emotions serve specific purposes and play a critical role in survival and interpersonal communications.

Understanding Emotions in Others

Developmental Timeline
  • Newborn Stage: Emotional contagion, where infants mimic facial expressions of others.
  • 2 Months: Improvement in facial expression discrimination.
  • 3 Months: Basic emotional responding starts.
  • 7 Months: Ability to recognize emotions in others emerges, accompanied by intermodal perception.
  • 2 Years: Infants begin discussing emotions in others, showcasing advanced understanding.

Temperament

Definition

  • Temperament refers to the emotions as traits manifesting in a stable style of responding emotionally and behaviorally to environmental events.

Dimensions of Temperament

  1. Activity Level: The pace or vigor involved in activities.
  2. Irritability: The intensity and ease of getting upset over negative events.
  3. Soothability: The capability to calm down quickly after distress.
  4. Fearfulness: The tendency to be wary of new or intense experiences.
  5. Sociability: The receptiveness to social interaction.

Types of Children According to Temperament

Chess & Thomas (1977) Model

  • Identifies three types of children based on dimensions like activity level, distractibility, and adaptability:
  1. Easy Child:
       - Regular patterns, positive mood, adapts well to change.
  2. Difficult Child:
       - Irregular patterns, slow to adapt, high-intensity reactions.
  3. Slow-to-Warm-Up Child:
       - Inactive, takes time to adapt but gradually becomes more comfortable.

Physiology and Temperament

Physiological Responses

  • Children with different temperament types exhibit varied physiological responses.
  1. Fetal Activity: Levels can predict later temperament.
  2. Heart Rate: Variability is often linked to temperament types.
  3. Cortisol Levels: Stress responses correlate with temperament.
  4. Limbic System Activity: Affects emotional regulation and temperament characteristics according to Kagan's theories.

Kagan’s Research

  • Investigated infant responses to stimuli (e.g. toys like mobiles).
  • Divided infants into high reactive versus low reactive categories, linking fearfulness/inhibition (e.g. shyness) to reactivity levels observed.