FinalExam-StudyReviewInformation (2)

Chapter 1 and 2 - Basic Nutrition

  • DRIs Components:

    • RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowance): Average daily nutrient intake sufficient to meet the needs of nearly all (97-98%) healthy individuals.

    • AI (Adequate Intake): Estimated intake level assumed to be adequate for healthy individuals when RDA cannot be determined.

    • EAR (Estimated Average Requirement): Average daily nutrient intake estimated to meet the requirements of half the healthy individuals in a specific life stage and gender group.

    • TUL (Tolerable Upper Intake Level): Maximum daily intake unlikely to cause adverse health effects.

  • AMDR (Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges):

    • Carbohydrates: 45-65% of total calories.

    • Protein: 10-35% of total calories.

    • Fat: 20-35% of total calories.

  • Nutrition-Related Causes of Death in the US:

    • Heart disease, diabetes, obesity-related conditions.

  • Nutrition Assessment Components:

    • Anthropometric: Measurements of body size and composition.

    • Biochemical: Laboratory analysis of nutrients and metabolites in the body.

    • Clinical: Assessment of physical signs and symptoms.

    • Dietary: Analysis of dietary intake and eating patterns.

  • Epidemiological Study vs. Controlled Trial:

    • Epidemiological studies observe relationships in populations; controlled trials test interventions in controlled environments.

  • Control Group Purpose:

    • Serves as a baseline to compare against the experimental group, ensuring that the results are due to the intervention.

  • Dietary Risk Factors for Chronic Diseases:

    • High saturated fat intake, low fiber, excess calories, high sugar intake.

  • Diet-Planning Principles:

    • Variety, balance, moderation, nutrient density.

  • USDA Food Pattern Food Groups:

    • Fruits, vegetables, grains, protein foods, dairy.

  • Daily Value on Food Label:

    • Reference values for nutrients to help consumers understand the nutritional content of food based on a 2,000-calorie diet.

Chapter 3 - Digestion/Absorption

  • Digestive Organs and Enzymes:

    • Salivary glands: Salivary amylase.

    • Stomach: Pepsin.

    • Pancreas: Lipase, amylase, proteases.

    • Small intestine: Various brush border enzymes.

  • Sphincters in Digestive System:

    • Lower esophageal (cardiac) sphincter, pyloric sphincter, ileocecal valve, anal sphincters.

  • Digestive Hormones and Roles:

    • Gastrin: Stimulates acid production.

    • Secretin: Stimulates bicarbonate release.

    • Cholecystokinin (CCK): Stimulates bile release.

  • Influences on Health and Digestion:

    • Bacteria: Gut microbiota influence digestion and health.

    • Hormones: Regulate digestive processes.

    • Nerves: Control gut motility and secretions.

  • Key Principles of Digestion:

    • Digestion occurs primarily in the stomach and small intestine.

    • Absorption mainly occurs in the small intestine.

    • Low pH (high acidity) found in the stomach; high pH (low acidity) in the small intestine.

  • Microvilli/Brush Border Enzymes:

    • Include maltase, sucrase, lactase.

  • Nutrient Transport in Intestines:

    • Glucose/galactose: Active transport.

    • Fructose: Facilitated diffusion.

  • Celiac Disease:

    • Gluten needs to be restricted in the diet.

  • GERD (Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease):

    • Modify diet by avoiding trigger foods (e.g., fatty foods, caffeine) and eating smaller meals.

Chapter 4 - Carbohydrates

  • Storage Forms of Carbohydrate:

    • Plants: Starch.

    • Animals: Glycogen.

  • Disaccharides and Component Monosaccharides:

    • Sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), maltose (glucose + glucose).

  • Types of Fibers:

    • Fermentable: Can be broken down by bacteria.

    • Soluble/Viscous: Helps lower blood cholesterol and glucose.

    • Insoluble: Promotes gut health and regularity.

  • Insulin Production:

    • Produced by the pancreas; regulates blood sugar levels.

  • Whole Grains vs. Refined Grains:

    • Whole grains retain fiber, vitamins, and minerals.

Chapter 5 - Lipids

  • Saturated Fat Percentage:

    • Should make up less than 10% of total daily caloric intake.

  • Fats to Limit for Heart Health:

    • Trans fats and saturated fats.

  • Essential Fatty Acids:

    • Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids found in fish, flaxseeds, and walnuts.

  • Trans Fats:

    • Major contributors include baked goods and fried foods.

    • Considered unhealthy due to their link to heart disease.

  • Forms of Fat Storage:

    • Stored primarily as triglycerides in adipose tissue.

  • Fat Digestion Location:

    • Most occurs in the small intestine.

  • Cholesterol Forms and Heart Disease Risk:

    • Low-density lipoprotein (LDL): Should be kept low.

    • High-density lipoprotein (HDL): Should be kept high.

Chapter 6 - Protein

  • Protein Structures:

    • Primary: Sequence of amino acids.

    • Secondary: Alpha-helix or beta-pleated sheet structure.

    • Tertiary: Three-dimensional folding.

    • Quaternary: Interaction of multiple polypeptides.

  • Amino Acids for Fuel or Fat:

    • Must undergo deamination before use as fuel or conversion to fat.

  • Amino Acid Categories:

    • Essential: Must be obtained from diet.

    • Nonessential: Can be synthesized by the body.

    • Conditionally essential: Necessary under certain conditions (e.g., stress, illness).

  • Effects of Altered Proteins:

    • Heat and acid denature proteins, affecting their function and structure.

  • Sources of Complete Proteins:

    • Animal products (meat, dairy, eggs) are high-quality proteins.

Chapter 7 - Alcohol

  • Primary Alcohol Metabolism Enzyme:

    • Alcohol dehydrogenase, produced in the liver.

  • Standard Drinks:

    • Beer: 12 oz; Wine: 5 oz; Distilled spirits: 1.5 oz.

  • Moderate Drinking Standards:

    • Women: Up to 1 drink/day; Men: Up to 2 drinks/day.

  • Alcohol Metabolism Location:

    • Mostly in the liver.

Chapter 8 - Metabolism

  • Definition of Metabolism:

    • All biochemical processes in the body, including anabolic and catabolic reactions.

  • Metabolic Pathways:

    • Anabolic: Build complex molecules (e.g., protein synthesis).

    • Catabolic: Break down molecules for energy (e.g., glycolysis).

  • Hormonal Regulation:

    • Anabolic promoted by insulin; catabolic promoted by glucagon and cortisol.

  • Key Metabolic Terms:

    • Glycolysis: Breakdown of glucose.

    • TCA Cycle: Citric acid cycle for energy production.

    • Cori Cycle: Recycling of lactic acid.

    • ETC (Electron Transport Chain): Produces the most ATP.

  • Metabolically Active Organ:

    • The liver is the most metabolically active organ.

  • Anaerobic Conditions Pathway:

    • Lactic acid fermentation is promoted.

Chapter 14 - Energy Balance and Body Composition

  • Energy Balance:

    • State where energy intake matches energy expenditure.

  • Calorimetry:

    • Direct: Measures heat directly; Indirect: Measures oxygen use.

  • Total Energy Expenditure (TEE):

    • Components include TEF (thermal effect of food), BMR (basal metabolic rate), and physical activity.

  • Types of Fat:

    • Subcutaneous: Beneath the skin; Visceral: Around organs (more harmful).

  • BMI Calculation and Definition:

    • BMI = weight (kg) / height (m)^2; used to assess body fat.

  • Disordered Eating Definitions:

    • Anorexia, bulimia, binge eating, and other types of disordered eating behaviors.

Chapter 9 - Fat Soluble Vitamins

  • Names of Fat-Soluble Vitamins:

    • A, D, E, K.

  • Absorption and Transport:

    • Absorbed with dietary fats and transported via chylomicrons.

  • Roles of Fat-Soluble Vitamins:

    • Vitamin A: Vision, immune function.

    • Vitamin D: Bone health, calcium absorption.

    • Vitamin E: Antioxidant, protects cell membranes.

    • Vitamin K: Blood clotting, bone metabolism.

  • Toxicity Symptoms:

    • Vitamin A and D have clear toxicity symptoms (e.g., hypervitaminosis A and D).

  • Deficiency Symptoms:

    • Vitamin D: Bone pain, rickets.

    • Vitamin A: Night blindness, immune deficiency.

  • Vitamins Produced by Intestinal Bacteria:

    • K and some forms of E.

  • Antioxidant Fat-Soluble Vitamins:

    • Vitamin E.

  • Provitamin A Sources:

    • Beta-carotene from carrots, sweet potatoes, and dark leafy greens.

  • Food Sources:

    • D: Fatty fish, fortified dairy.

    • Pre-formed A: Liver, fish oil.

    • K: Green vegetables.

    • E: Nuts and seeds.

  • Vitamin D Activation:

    • Activated in the liver and kidneys from the precursor formed in the skin.

Chapter 10 - Water Soluble Vitamins

  • Absorption and Transport:

    • Absorbed directly into the bloodstream; readily excreted.

  • Major Roles of Water-Soluble Vitamins:

    • B vitamins: Energy metabolism.

    • Vitamin C: Antioxidant, collagen synthesis.

  • Deficiency Names:

    • Thiamine (B1): Beriberi, Niacin (B3): Pellagra.

  • Food Sources:

    • B vitamins: Whole grains, meat, dairy; C: Citrus fruits, strawberries.

  • Bioavailable Form of Folate:

    • Folic acid is more bioavailable than natural food sources.

  • Forms in Metabolism:

    • Riboflavin and niacin are used as coenzymes in the TCA cycle and ETC.

  • Antioxidant Vitamins:

    • Vitamins C and E.

  • Vitamin Consumption Form:

    • Preferably from food rather than supplements.

Chapter 11 - Water

  • Major Roles of Water:

    • Regulates temperature, transports nutrients, and removes waste.

  • Definition of Hydrolysis:

    • Chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water.

  • Water Percentage in the Body:

    • Approximately 60%.

  • Fluid Compartments:

    • Extracellular, intracellular, interstitial (between cells), intravascular (in blood vessels).

  • Fluid Balance Regulation:

    • Regulated by kidneys, hormones (ADH, aldosterone).

  • Daily Water Requirement:

    • About 2.7 liters (for women) to 3.7 liters (for men).

  • Fluid Intake Sources:

    • Beverages, food, metabolic water (from metabolism).

  • Urine Appearance for Hydration:

    • Light yellow indicates good hydration.

  • Water Intake Strategies:

    • Carry a water bottle, set reminders to drink, eat water-rich foods (fruits and veggies).

Chapter 12 - Major Minerals

  • Major vs. Trace Minerals:

    • Major minerals needed in larger amounts; trace minerals needed in smaller amounts.

  • Major Minerals List:

    • Sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium.

  • Bioavailability Factors:

    • Age, gender, nutrient interactions, dietary composition.

  • Mineral Functions, Sources, and Symptoms:

    • Sodium: Fluid balance, sources: salt; deficiency: hyponatremia.

    • Potassium: Muscle function, sources: fruits; deficiency: hypokalemia.

    • Calcium: Bone health, sources: dairy; deficiency: osteoporosis.

    • Phosphorus: Energy transfer, sources: meat; deficiency is rare.

    • Magnesium: Muscle health, sources: nuts; deficiency: muscle cramps.

  • Minerals in Bone Health:

    • Calcium and phosphorus crucial for bone density; magnesium aids in structure.