Samenvatting

  • Parts of speech

Noun, Verb, Article(introduces noun), Adjective(describes noun), Adverb(describes verb, adverb, adjective), Pronoun(replaces noun), Preposition

Phrases: Noun phrase, Verb phrase, Adjective phrase, adverbial phrase, prepositional phrase (P+NP)

Noun phrase syntactic function: Subject, Protoype: agent

Verb phrase syntactic function: Predicate, Prototype: action

Transitive verb: Need direct object(Ex. he found the answer)

Finite verb: I study, Non-finite: I was studying(was=finite)

Functions of NPs (as complements of V)

Direct object: NP to the right of V(transitive)

Indirect object:

  • first of 2 NPs following V

  • to/for-phrase following DO (ditransitive)

Basic sentence structure
phrase NP – VP – (NP) – NP – (to/for-N)
function S IO DO IO

Passivisation: every complement NP may fill the subject slot. (Ex. Gary kisses Susan, Susan was kissed by Gary)

NP complements

Subject complement: AdjP, NP, PrepP

Object complement: AdjP, AdvP

Adverbial complement forms(time, place, manner, intensifying): AdvP, PrepP, NP, Adverbial clause

Adverbs:

Front position: Ex. ‘yesterday morning’ something very strange happened

  • connecting adverbs(join a clause to what came before): Ex. ‘however’, not everybody agreed

  • comment adverbs(speaker’s opinion of an action): Ex. fortunately, surprisingly

  • Indef. frequency: usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes, ocassionally

  • Adverbs of certainty: maybe, perhaps(others usually go in mid-position)

  • Adverbs of time and place are possible at the beginning

Mid position: Ex. my brother ‘completely’ forgot my birthday

  • adverbs of indefinite frequency: Ex. my boss ‘often’ travels

  • adverbs of certainty: Ex. i’ve ‘definetely’ decided to quit my job

  • adverbs of completeness: Ex. completely, almost, nearly, quite, rather, partly, sort of, kind of, more or less, practically, scarcely, hardly

  • Focusing adverbs: adverbs that ‘point to’ one part of a clause. Ex. also, just, even, only, mainly, mostly, either, or, neither, nor

  • Adverbs of manner: Ex. angrily, happily, slowly

  • Comment adverbs (sometimes, usually front position)

End position: Ex. what are you doing ‘tomorrow’?

  • Adverbs of manner: Ex. she brushed her hair ‘slowly’

  • Adverbs of place: Ex. the children are playing ‘upstairs’

  • Adverbs of time: Ex. I phoned Alex ‘this morning’

  • Adverbs of indefinite frequency: usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes, ocassionally (end position if they are main focus of the message. Ex. I go there ocassionally)

Emphasising adverbs: go directly before the words that they emphasise or ‘point to’. Ex. very, extremely, terribly, just(as a short time), almost, really, right

Nouns:

Two-term number system: Singular/Plural

Two-term case system: Unmarked/Marked

Three-term gender system: Masculine/Feminine/Neuter

Semantic features: 1/(in)animate, 2/(non-)human, 3/ Individuatin/Collective, 4/(un)countable

Interr. Pronouns: Who(+human), which(-human)

Collective nouns: Always plural verbs: people, folk, police, clergy, laity, nobility, gentry, cavalry, infantry, military, peasantry, royalty, youth, cattle, livestock

Proper nouns: Always singular/plural, only compatible with non-restrictive modifiers

  • Without Def. Art: Personal Name(Ex.Timothy) / Calendar Item(Ex. January) / Geographical names(Ex. Belgium) / Name+Common noun combination(Ex. Leicester Square)

  • With Def. Art: Plural nouns(Ex. the Netherlands, the Callaghans) / number of geographical names(Ex. the Sahara, the Thames) / Names of public institutions or buildings(Ex. the Hilton, the Louvre) / Newspaper(Ex. the Times)

Category of Number:

  • Open class nouns: s-plural

  • Closed class nouns

  • Plurals: vowel change(Ex. goose/geese) / -EN(Ex. ox/oxen) / f→ve(Ex. knife/knives) / Penny→Pennies(coin)/pence(value)

  • Unmarked invariable nouns: 1/ syntactically singular: Ex. justice, bread, music 2/ both S and P (ex. sheep) 3/ syntactically plural: Ex. clergy, nobility, youth

  • Marked invariable nouns: 1/ syntactically singular: Ex. athletics, Naples 2/ both S and P: Ex. barracks, headquarters 3/ syntactically plural: Ex. surroundings, amends

  • Foreign plurals: -us→-i / -um→-a / -a→ae /-is→-es /-ex,-ix→-ices / …

Category of Gender:

  • Class1/2: Gender-marking: Ex. prince/princess, duke/duchess

  • Class 3: Both male/female human: Ex. artist, parent, sibling

  • Class 4: Child/baby → neuter when not known/relevant

  • Class 5/6: Higher mammals and birds: Ex. bull/cow, cock/hen, stallion/mare(M/F)

Ex. cat, horse, deer, rabbit, … (Neuter, unless explicit reference)

  • Class 7: Lower animals: sex distinctions aren’t important

  • Class 8: Inanimate nouns with affectionate relationship (Often feminine: Ex. ships, guns, cars)

Category of Case:

  • Gen. Singular: +’s

  • Gen. Plural: +’s or +’ when ending in -s

  • Gen. as head: Connection with residence (Ex. going to john’s), reference to shops(Ex. the butcher’s), Elliptic Gen. (Ex. Susan’s car was bigger than Jane’s)

  • Double Gen: Comb s-gen/periphrasis of: Ex. a friend of my brother’s

Pronouns:

1/ Personal PrN: Nom/Acc: I/me, you, he-she-it/him,her-it, we/us, you, they/them

I, we, you: situational reference / 3rdP(+possessives): cataphoric(and/or anaphoric) contextual reference (Pers. / Poss. PrNs)

2/ Poss. PrN: Gen: mine, yours, his-hers-its, ours, yours, theirs

3/ Reflx. PrN: S(+self): my-,your-,him-,her-,it-,one-. P(+selves):our-,your-,them-

Can’t be subject, Reflx verb: verbs always reflx prN as complement

4/ Interr. PrN: PrN: who(+acc: whom,+gen: whose)/which(limited selection)/what

Adverb: where, when, why, how(All: +ever)

5/ Demonst. PrN: this/these - that/those

6/ Relative PrN: who(whom,whose),which, that, zero-pronoun, as/but, what, relative adverbs: where/when/why

Replaces NP2 in a sentence with 2 broadly co-referential NPs (See P176)

7/ Reciprocal PrN: each other / one another → can’t be subjects / replaces NP2 in two co-referential NPs

8/ Quantifier PrN:

  • All-inclusive: all, both, any, each, every(all +of) (any/every +body/one/thing)

  • Exclusive/negative: Nobody, nothing, none(of), neither(of)

  • Indefinite: some/any/either(+of, body, one), enough, multal-paucal group(much/many, more/most, (a)little/less, (a)few/fewers, several)

  • pronoun one: indefinite one(any individual(of a group)), plural ones(PRO form), numeral one(quantifier)

  • Cardinal numbers: definite total (ordinal numbers aren’t pronouns)

Adnominals:

4 ways of using Adnominals

  • Modification: Restrictive / non-restrictive (ex. my old mother)

  • Deixis

  • Quantification

  • Possession

1/ Pre-determiners:

  • quantifiers: All, both, many a, … multipliers(Ex. double), fractions (Ex. half, one-third)

  • intensifiers: rather, quite(Adverb or P-d), so, too, as(as…as), such(also Adj)

  • Wh-words: what(ever), how(ever, +many/much), whose, which

2/ Determiners:

  • Deictics (this,these/that,those)

  • Articles (Def: the/Indef: A,An) (zero-article: generic reference(Ex. Cats have whiskers) / non-referential use / plural noun and non-count noun)

  • Quantifiers: some, any, no, either, neither, every, each

  • Poss. Det.: 1pS: My/1pP: Our/2p: your/3pS: his,her,its/3pP: their (+every:possible)

  • Spec. Det***: s-gen. → embedded NP (+every:possible)

3/ Adnominal adjectives / modifiers

  1. Limiters: Deictic Adj: Ex. certain, particular, ordinals, chief, main… / Quantifiers: 1/ Cardinal numbers 2/ Multal/paucal: little,less,least/few,fewer,fewest/many,more,most

  2. Eval. Adj. (Ex. Awful)

  3. Descr. Adj. → 1/ Size 2/ Shape 3/ Age 4/ Colour

  4. Participles (+ing Ex. working) (+ed Ex. worked)

  5. Provenance adjectives (Ex. English, London, American)

  6. Defining modifiers (Ex. agricultural, medical)

  7. Unmarked noun → embedded (Material noun: 1st) (Ex. electronics group, law school) / Class. Gen. (Ex. child’s play, cat’s eye)

4/ Postposed adnominals:

  • Emb. PrepP: Ex. in the garden, for my job (Restr. or non-restr.)

  • Adverbs: here, there, below, behind, yesterday, now,

  • Apposition: 2(+) co-referential NP: Ex. Alan, the chairman (Restr. or non-restr.)

  • Adjectives: Ex. president-elect, Secretary General, proper, present, concerned, involved(Last 4, diff preposed meanings)

Semi-adnominal: self-emphasizer: Ex. he himself, I want to read the book itself

Modified modifiers:

  • Modifiers modified by adverb: 1/ Intensifier: Ex. unusually large flat, highly interesting lecture 2/ other adverbs: Ex. politically correct statement, often morbid sarcasm

  • Modifiers modified by adjective: Emb. Unm. N: Ex. old ‘car’ dump, old ‘car dump’

  • Modifiers modified by noun: Emb. Unm. N: Ex. woman ‘news commentator’, Rugby ‘league’ fixtures

  • Genitives and modifiers: Emb. spec. s-gen: Ex. these young people’s dreams(These modifies young people’s and not dreams)