AP Modern World History Unit 2 Textbook Notes

The Silk Roads

• more than 1300 years after first accounts of travel on Silk Roads, routes fell into disuse

  • revived by 8th and 9th centuries

• land route of silk roads vibrant and essential to interregional trade in 14th and 15th centuries

  • luxury good demand increase in Europe and Africa  

  • Chinese, Persian, Indian artisans and merchants expanded production of textile and porcelains for export

Causes of Growth of Exchange Networks

• Crusades paved way to expanding networks of exchange

  • lords and armies of knights brought back fabrics and spices from east

• silk road trade routes remained in operation in spite of byzantine empire inroads by ottoman turks

  • sea routes too

• china eager for Europe’s gold and silver

• Europe eager for silk, tea and rhubarb

• global trade increase

Rise of New Empires

• first golden age of silk roads came to end after collapse of classical civilizations (e.g. Roman and Han empires)

• by 8th and 9th centuries, Arab merchants from abbasid empire revived land route of silk roads and sea routes in Indian ocean

• Tang china offered much to newly revived global trade network

  • compass

  • paper

  • gunpowder

  • porcelain

  • tea

  • silk

• China imported cotton, precious stones, pomegranates, dates, horses and grapes

• luxury goods appealed to rich ppl in Chinese society

  • reveled in country’s newfound affluence

• marked second gold age of silk roads

• no other cause as significant on impact of expansion of trade as rise of Mongol Empire

• Mongols conquered Abbasid Caliphate in 1258

  • in 14th century china came under control too

• parts of silk roads under different authority / rulers unified in a system under control of authority that respected merchants and enforced laws

• increased safety of travel on silk roads bc of Mongols

  • improved roads

  • punished bandits

• new trade channels between Asian, Middle East, Africa, Europe

• survivors of Mongol conquests and descendants benefitted from “reinvigorations” of trade routes not used much since Roman and Han empires

Improvements in Transportation Technologies

• travelers on overland silk roads learned traveling w others in caravans safe than traveling alone

• learned how to design saddles for camels that greatly increased weight of load that could be carried

• china made advances in naval tech to allow control over sea-based trade routes in South China Sea

• during Han Dynasty, Chinese scientists developed magnetic compass and improved rudder

• Chinese junk developed in Han dynasty 

  • boat similar to southwest asian dhow

  • multiple sails

  • 400 ft long

Effects of Growth of Exchange Networks

• significant effects of expansion and stability of silk roads were series of oases that developed along routes

  • included thriving cities, commercial innovations

    • greatly helped to manage increasing trade

Cities and Oases

• long stretches of overland silk roads passed through inhospitable terrain

  • hot arid lands where water was scarce

• cities along routes watered by rivers were thriving centers of trade

• Samarkand (present day Uzbekistan) was stopping point on silk roads between china and mediterranean

  • center of cultural exchange and center for trading goods

• presence of diverse religions   

  • christianity

  • buddhism

  • Zoroastrianism

  • islam

• known for artisans and centers of islamic learning and decorated mosques (kashgar too)

• caravanserai

  • once routes of silk roads became stabilized, inns (caravanserai) sprang up about 100 miles apart

    • how far camels could travel before they needed water

• travelers could rest both themselves and their animals

  • could sometimes trade animals for fresh ones

• caravanserai derived from Persian words caravan and palace

• commercial innovations

  • china developed new financial systems to manage increasing trade

• china had long been money economy

  • using money rather than bartering w commodities

• copper coins used became unwieldy to transport for everyday transactions

  • gov developed system of credit   

    • flying cash

  • allowed merchant to deposit paper money under name in one place to withdraw at another

• flying cash locations model for modern banks

• banking houses in european cities

  • person could present bill of exchange

    • document stating holder was legally promised payment of set amount on set dates

    • received money in exchange

• Crusades awakened Europeans’ interest in luxury goods from Asia

• organized trade of European resources

• Hanseatic League alliance formed by cities in northern Germany and Scandinavia

  • controlled trade in north sea and baltic sea to drive out pirates and monopolize trade in goods such as timber, grain, leather and salted fish

Innovations in Commerce, 500 BCE to 1603 CE

Mongol Empire and the Modern World

• Mongols of Central Asia marched across Eurasia throughout 13th century

• reputation for slaughter spread farther than actual conquest

• Mongols sparked period of interregional connection and exchange at level that the world had not experienced in 1k years

The Mongols and Their Surroundings

• in 12th century Mongols were multiple cals of pastoral nomads who herded goats and sheep

  • hunter-foragers

  • north of Gobi Desert in East Asia

• expected everyone to be skilled horse riders and highly valued courage in hunting and warfare

• surrounded by other tribes

  • Tatars

  • Naimans

  • Merkits

  • Jurchen 

    • northern China

• coveted relative wealth of tribes and kingdoms that were located closer to silk roads 

• easier access to luxury goods

  • silk clothing and gold jewelry

Genghis Khan

• Mongol leader Temujin born in 1162

  • spent decades creating tribal alliances and defeating neighboring groups

  • formed key friends

  • oldest son married to daughter of neighboring khan (king)

  • intensely focused on building power

  • sometimes appointed talented non family members to positions over family members

  • ruthless

    • killed own stepbrother

  • considered loyalty best way to run his growing kingdom

• in 1206 Temujin gathered Mongol chieftains at meeting (kuriltai) where he elected khan of Mongolian kingdom

  • took name Genghis Khan

    • ruler of all

Beginning of Conquest

• in 1210 Genghis Khan and troops headed eat and attacked powerful Jin Empire 

  • established by Jurchens century earlier

  • now ruled Manchuria, inner Mongolia, northern China

  • capital city of Zhongdu    

    • modern Beijing

• earned reputation as terrifying warrior during campaign

  • those who resisted were brutally killed in retribution

• Mongols sometimes wiped out civilization populations of entire towns after defeating armies

• stories of brutality spread in advance of campaigns

• some leaders surrendered before attack

• conquered both Central asian Kara Khitai Empire and Islamic Khwarazm Empire farther west in 1219

• by 1227 Khan’s khanate (kingdom) reached North China Sea to eastern Persia

Genghis Khan at War

• Mongolian soldiers strong riders and proficent with short bow

• highly disciplined

• Kahn developed efficient command structure

  • to help with communication between units, messenger force crated whose members rode for days without stopping

    • slept on horses while riding

• Mongol armies developed special units that mapped terrain so they were prepared against attacks and knew which way to go to attack enemies

  • military strats extended to surprise and craft

    • frequently deployed band of warriors smaller than that of enemy

      • retreat in defeated

      • enemy would follow retreat into larger army

    • sent small group ahead to ask for surrender

      • if enemy refused he killed all aristocrats, craftworkers, miners and others with skills were recruited for Mongol empire

        • others used as laborers

• Mongols quickly incorporated into military the weapons and tech of ppl the conquered

• to keep contact with far reaches of empire, created type of pony express

  • carried oral messages instead of written letters

Genghis Khan at Peace

• period of Eurasian history between 13th and 14th centuries often called Pax Mongolica (Mongolian Peace)

• capital of empire at Karakorum

  • near center of modern Mongolia

• consulted w scholars and engineers of Chinese and Islamic traditions

• possibly responsible for more new bridges than any other ruler in history

• social policies liberal for day

  • religious freedom

• freed from warfare, charge of protecting silk roads

  • make safe for trade

  • ushering in third gold age of silk roads

• new trade channels established between Asia, Middle East, Africa and Europe

• survivors of conquest benefitted from reinvigoration of trade routes not used heavily since days of Roman and Han empires

• effort to unify empire by directing scribe captured in 1204 to adapt the Uyghur alphabet to represent Mongol

  • failed

  • alphabet still used in Mongolia today

Mongolian Empire Expands

• 3 of Khan’s grandsons set up own khanates

  • further expanded empire into Asia and Europe

• with each conquest, empire expanded, new people absorbed into economy and networks of exchange

Batu and Golden Horde

• in 1236 Batu (son of Khan’s oldest son) led Mongolian army of 100k soldiers into Russia

  • Russia loose network of city-states and principalities

• Batu army came to be known as Golden Horde

  • marched westward

  • conquered small Russian kingdom

  • forced to pay tributes

  • in 1240 capital city of Kiev was looted and destroyed

• Golden Horde continued pushing westward

• initial period of sympathy for Mongols based on religious toleration and promotion of trade lost when Golden Horde conquered Christian region (Russia)

• in 1241 Batu led GH into successful military encounter with Polish, German, French knights under leadership of King Henry of Silesia

• in Karakorum Ogodei Khan (Great Khan’s successor) passed away while Batu was setting sights on Italy and Austria

  • called off attacks and returned home to attend funeral and see to issues of succession

  • by time Batu returned to Europe had lost interest in conquering Western Europe

• Mongols ruled northern Russia working through existing Russian rulers who sent regular tributes

  • chose indirect rule bc they did not want to live in forests

• rulers of city-state Moscow began collecting additional tributes set aside to develop anti-Mongol coalition among Russian city-states

  • coalition rose up against Golden Horde and defeated it in 1380 at Battle of Kulikovo

    • Mongol influence decline after this

• by mid 16th century Russia defeated all the descendant khans of Mongols besides Crimean Tatars who was not defeated until late 18th century

• Russia began to recover from long-lasting impact on Russia after defeating GH

• invasions promoted Russian princes to improve military organization and accept value of more centralized leadership of region

• 3 centuries of Mongol rule ruined Russian ties w Western Europe

  • caused Russia to develop more distinct Russian culture

  • resistance to Mongols created foundation for modern Russian state

Hulegu and the Islamic Heartlands

• Batu led wester armies of Hulegu

• other grandson of Genghis Khan took charge of southwest region

• in 1258 Hulegu led Mongols into Abbasid territories where they destroyed city of Baghdad and killed caliph + 200k residents of city

• Hulegu armies pushed west, threatening more of Middle East

• in 1260 Hulegu defeated from temp alliance between Muslim Mamluks under military leader Baibaras and Christian Crusader in Palestine

  • both groups viewed Mongols as serious threat

• at time of defeat Hulegu’s kingdom (Il-khanate) in central Asia stretched from Byzantium to Oxus River (Amu Darya modern day)

• Mongols ruled kingdom, but Persians served as ministers and provincial and local officials

  • found this arrangement led to max tax collection

• eventually Hulegu and most other Mongols living in Il khanate converted to Islam

  • after conversion, Mongols supported massacres of Jews and Christians

Kublai Khan and the Yuan Dynasty

• in eastern part of Mongolian Empire, Genghis Khan grandson Kublai Khan set sights on China

  • then ruled by Song Dynasty

• China better opponent that those other khans faced

  • spent 1235-1271 attempting to conquer China'

• in 1260 Kublai got title of Great Khan

  • 11 years later defeated the Chinese

• Kublai established Yuan Dynasty

  • adhering more to Chinese tradition rather than forcing Mongolian practices of leadership and control

• rebuilt capital at Zhongdu (destroyed by Mongols in 1215) and called it Dadu

• skilled at governing large, diverse territory

• religious freedom

  • helped with loyalty in oppressed groups

    • Buddhists

    • Daoist

• most Chinese ppl initially enjoyed rule of Great Khan

  • brought prosperity to China bc of cultural exchanges and improved trade w other countries

• Mongol women led more independent lives than other at time

  • tended flocks of sheep and goats

  • raised children

  • provided meals for family

  • rode horses and so wore same leather trousers as men

  • could remarry after being widowed and could initiate divorce

Mongols Lose Power

• despite Kublai Khan’s adoption of Chinese customs, Mongolia leaders eventually alienated Chinese

• hired foreigners for gov instead of native-born Chinese

• promoted Buddhists and Daoist 

  • dismantled civil service exam system

    • distressed Chinese scholar-gentry class who were often Confucian

• official policy of tolerance

  • Mongolians tended to remain separate from Chinese and prohibited non-Mongols from speaking Mongolian

• Mongolian rulers of China failed to expand beyond

• in 1274 tried (and failed) to conquer Japan, Indochina, Burma, island of Java

  • defeat suggested Mongols not as fearsome as before

• in 1350s White Lotus Society began quietly organizing to put end to Yuan Dynasty

• in 1368 Zhu Yuanzhang (Buddhist monk from poor peasant family) led revolt that overthrew Yuan Dynasty and founded Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

• Mongol defeat in china paralleled general decline in power elsewhere

  • empire began to shrink

• GH lost territory by 1369

• Central Asian territories conquered by Tamerland (Timur the Lame) 

The Long-Term Impact of the Mongolian Invasions

• Mongolian invasions played key role in history in many ways, positive and negative

• Mongols conquered larger area than Romans

  • bloody rep earned

  • empire was largest continuous land empire in history

• Pax Mongolica (c.1250 - c. 1350) Mongols revitalized interregional trade between Asia, Middle East, Africa, Europe

  • built system of roads and continued to maintain and guard trade routes

• interregional culture exchange

  • islamic scientific knowledge made way to China

• Mongol conquests helped to transmit fleas that carried the bubonic plague (Black Death)

• Mongols ruled successfully due to understanding of centralized power

  • devised and used single international law for all their conquered territories

  • after Mongols decline in power, kingdoms and states of Europe, Asia, Southeast Asia continued or copied process of centralizing power

• Mongol fighting techniques led to end of Western Europe use of knights in armor 

  • heavily clad knights could not react in time to the Mongol’s use of speed and surprise

• era of walled city in Europe came to an end

  • walls proved useless against Mongols’ siege technology

• some consider cannon a Mongol invention 

  • made from Chinese gunpowder, Muslim flamethrowers, European bell-casting techniques

Exchange in the Indian Ocean

• Dar al-Islam (the House of Islam / Muslim World) might be called worl'd’s first global empire

  • connected societies from North Africa to South Asia

• before missionaries and imperial armies, islam spread by Muslim merchants traveling to non-Muslim lands in search of trading partners

• Muslim merchant connections to Dar al-Islam interacted w developments in sailing tech and environmental knowledge to transform Indian Ocean into an economic hot spot during the Postclassical Era

Causes of Expanded Exchange in the Indian Ocean

• South Asia (located in center of Indian Ocean) benefitted a lot from trade in Indian Ocean Basin

• some cause of expanded trade in Indian Ocean Basin same as those of expanded overland routes, some specific to ocean travel and knowledge

Spread of Islam

• expansion of Islam connected more cities than ever before

  • Indian Ocean trade began in 200 BCE

• trading partners in east Africa, east and Southeast and South Asia

• Muslim Persians and Arabs were dominant seafarers and crucial in transporting goods to port cities across Indian Ocean

• cities on west coast of India became thriving centers of trade bc of interactions w merchants from east Africa and southwest Asia

  • Cambay

  • Calicut

    • became bustling port city for merchants in search of spices from southern India

    • foreign merchants from Arabia and China met in Calicut to exchange goods from west and east respectively

    • local rulers welcomed presence of Muslim and Chinese merchants

      • brought city wealth and prominence

Increased Demand for Specialized Products

• as Indian Ocean trade grew, demand for specialized products grew

• every region involved in trade had something special to offer

  • Indian known for high quality of fabrics

    • especially cotton

    • merchants traveled to India for woven carpets and high-carbon steel for weapons, tanned leather, artisan-crafted stonework, pepper from southern coastal cities

  • Modern-day Malaysia and Indonesia became known as Spice Islands bc of fragrant nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves and cardamom exported

  • Swahili coastal cities of Mombasa, Mogadishu and Sofala exported slaves, ivory, gold

  • China exported silks

    • Chinese porcelain coveted worldwide

      • “fine china”

  • Southwest Asia exported horses, figs and dates

• trade in enslaved people also played role in exchanges in Indian Ocean

  • long running slave trade in eastern Africa 

    • over land or Indian Ocean, slaves from east Africa sold to buyers in northern Africa, Middle East and India

    • slaves transported to islands off southeast coast of Africa 

      • Madagascar

    • trade reached peak in 18th and 19th centuries

• slaves in Indian Ocean trade more likely to provide forced labor in seaports in shipping industry and as household servants

  • some worked as sailors or soldiers

  • lived in towns of cities

    • more opportunity to develop communities and to work alongside free laborers

  • had certain rights in Islamic communities

    • right to marry

• African words, musical styles, customs can be found in Oman, India, etc.

Environmental Knowledge

• knowledge of monsoon winds essential for trading in Indian Ocean

• in winter months wind originated from northeast

• in spring and summer months wind blew from southwest

• merchants timed voyages carefully

Advances in Maritime Technology

• Arab sailors used sailing tech to aid travel

  • debatable if invented triangular lateen sails

    • popular bc could easily catch winds coming from different directions

• Chinese sailors during classical period invented stern rudder

  • gave ships more stability and made easier to maneuver

• trade facilitated rapid spread of sailing tech

• astrolabe improved by Muslim navigators in 12th century

  • allowed sailors to determine how far north or south from equator

Growth of States

• trading networks in Indian ocean fostered growth of states to institutionalize revenue from trade

• Malacca (Melaka) became wealthy by building navy and imposing fees on ships that passed through Strait of Malacca

• Sultan of Malacca powerful in 1400s and expanded into Sumatra and southern Malay Peninsula

• Malacca’s prosperity based on trade instead of agriculture or mining or manufacturing

• sultanate ended when Portuguese invaded city in 1511

  • hoped by conquering key city on Strait of Malacca could control trade that flowed through it between Europe, India and China

    • successful enough to generate great wealth for empire

    • less success than hoped for

  • conquest touched off conflicts among other states in region and caused traders to diversify routes and ports used

Effects of Expanded Exchange in the Indian Ocean

Diasporic Communities

• natural result of waiting for favorable winds, merchants interacted w surrounding cultures and ppls in region

  • many Arab and East African merchants stayed in western Indian port cities permanently bc married women met there

• Arab and Persian merchants settled in East Africa

• merchants from Dar al-Islam were first to bring Islam to southern Asia through intermarriage

  • children generally raised with muslim traditions

• settlements of ppl away from homeland 

  • diaspora

• in diasporas, settlers intro own cultural traditions into indigenous cultures

  • cultures influenced culture of merchants

• diasporas through trade in many parts of the world

Response to Increased Demand

• increased demand for products caused trade to expand

• also resulted in several effect w long-lasting impacts

  • to meet rising demands, producers needed to find ways to become more efficient

    • grow more crops

    • make more textiles

    • manufacture more iron

  • role of state increased to oversee efforts at efficiency and to raise money through customs and fees for use of seaports

• western Indian Rajput kingdom Gujarat became go-tween for trade between East and West

  • revenue was many times more than entire worth of some European states

Swahili City-States

• Indian Ocean trade created thriving city-states along east coast of Africa

  • Swahili city-states

• Swahili means coasters 

  • refers to inhabitants of bustling commercial centers

    • Kilwa, Mombasa (modern Kenya), Zanzibar (modern Tanzania) 

• traders of Zanj Coast sold ivory, gold, slaves to Arab training partners 

  • also exotic goods like tortoise shells, peacock feathers, rhino horns

• Zanj cities got Chinese porcelain, Indian cotton, manufactured ironwork

• Chinese porcelain remain common find among ruins of Swahili cities

• trade brought wealth to cities on East African coast

• at height of Indian Ocean trade, many mosques and wealthy merchants’ homes made of stone or coral

Significant Cultural Transfers

• transfer of knowledge, culture, tech, commerce, religion intensified as result of thriving trade in IOB

• in 1405, Min emperor Yongle sent Zheng He on first of seven great voyages

  • Zheng traveled to Indonesia, Ceylon and other coastal areas on Indian Ocean to Arabia and to east coast of Africa and to the Cape of Good Hope

    • main purpose to display might of Ming Dynasty to rest of world and receive tribute from people encountered

• expeditions won prestige for Chinese government and opened new markets for Chinese goods

• Zheng He and crew returned to China w exotic treasures and new understanding of world beyond Chinese borders

  • first giraffe Chinese had seen

• scholars worried greater interaction and trade w foreign cultures threat to China social order

  • Confucianism

• some critics deemed other cultures barbaric and vastly inferior to Chinese culture

• some thought voyages too expensive

• Zhu Gaozhi — Yongle’s successor — ended Zheng He’s travel and discouraged all Chinese ppl from sailing away from China 

  • made building ship w more than 2 masts punishable offense

• Zheng voyages put stop to pirate activities off coast of China and Southeast Asia

Trans-Saharan Trade Routes

• few societies inhabited Sahara Desert before arrival of Islam

  • arid climate made nearly impossible to farm

• nomadic communities conducted some trade across Sahara   

  • volume increased w Muslim merchants in 7th and 8th centuries

• when empires like Mali took over area in early 1200s, commerce expanded dramatically

• merchants and traders used caravans to facilitate commerce

• Africans traded gold, ivory, hides, slaves for Arab and Berber salt, cloth, paper, horses

Trans-Saharan Trade

• Sahara occupy 3.6 mil square miles

  • around same size as China

  • only 800 square miles are oases

    • places where human settlement impossible bc water from deep underground is brought to surface, making land fertile

      • sometimes comes naturally, sometimes requires wells

Camels, Saddles, Trade

• Muslim merchants from Southwest Asia traveled across Sahara on camel

• camels began to appear in North Africa in 3rd century BCE

  • native to Arabia (Islamic heartland)

• camels accustomed to harsh, dry climate of Arabian Desert

  • adapt well to living in Sahara

• camels can consume lots of water at one time compared to horses and not need water for while

  • began to replace donkeys and horses after 300 CE

• up to 15 different camel saddles for different purposes

• South Arabian saddle where rider sits in back of hump

  • makes riding easier bc rider can hold hair of hump

• Northern Arabian saddle for sitting on top of hump

  • greater visibility in battles

  • being near head gave best possible control over camel

• Somalis in Eastern Africa made saddle that can carry loads up to 600 pounds

• camels usually also had enough to last traveler until next oasis atop of trading goods

• ppl leading caravans walked entire way

• 7 N-S trade routes

• 2 E-W trade routes

• people in Sub-Saharan Africa in touch w expanding number of cultures and trading partners

• by end of 8th century CE, trans-Saharan trade famous throughout Europe and Asia

• gold most precious commodity

• West African merchants acquired gold from waters of Senegal River

• foreign traders came to West Africa seeking gold, ivory, slaves

  • brought salt, textiles and horses in exchange

• trans-Saharan trade brought considerable wealth to societies of West Africa 

  • Mali

  • Ghana

• brought Islam

  • spread into Sub-Saharan Africa

West African Empire Expansion

• by 12th century, war w neighboring societies permanently weakened Ghana

  • in place rose new trading societies

    • most powerful was Mali

      • North African traders introduced Islam to Mali in 9th century

Mali’s Riches

• gov of Mali profited from the gold trade

  • taxed nearly all other trade entering West Africa

• most residents were farmers 

  • cultivated sorghum and rice

• Timbuktu and Gao accumulated most wealth and developed into centers of Muslim life in region

• Timbuktu became world-renowned center of Islamic learning

Expanding Role of States

• rulers needed to establish currency whose value was widely understood

  • Mali currency was cowrie shells, cotton cloth, gold, glass beads, salt

• rulers needed to protect trade routes and areas where currencies were made / harvested / other trade resources were produced

• empires expanded reach to take over resource-rich areas

• Mali’s founding ruler is Sundiata

  • father ruled small society in West Africa (modern Guinea)

  • when father died, rival groups invaded and killed most of royal fam and captured throne

    • spared Sundiata bc young prince was crippled and not threat

      • ended up learning to fight

      • feared warrior that enemies forced into exile

        • exile strengthened him and his allies

      • returned to kingdom of birth, defeated enemies, reclaimed throne

• wealth grew under Sundiata’s rule

Mansa Musa

• grand-nephew of Sundiata

• brought fame to region

• known for religious leadership instead of political / economic acumen

• Muslim

• began pilgrimage in 1324 to Mecca (Islam’s holiest city)

• prosperity allowed to take caravan to Arabia consisting of 100 camels, thousands of slaves and soldiers, gold

  • displayed wealth to outside world

• visit to Mecca deepened devotion to Islam

• established religious schools in Timbuktu, built mosques in Muslim trading cities, sponsored those who wanted to continue religious studies elsewhere

• deepened support of Islam in Mali

• decline in Mali less than 100 years after death

• by late 1400s, Songhai Kingdom taken place as West African powerhouse

  • became larger and richer than Mali