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Advantageous Inherited Traits

• Advantageous inherited traits become more common due to natural selection.

Lipid Rafts

• Lipid rafts are formed by cholesterol, sphingolipids, and phospholipids.

Dark Phase of Photosynthesis

• Carbon fixation occurs during the dark phase of photosynthesis.

Cytochromes

• Cytochromes are involved in oxidative phosphorylation.

Theory of Evolution

• Organisms produce too many offspring for available resources.
• Organisms with characteristics best suited to their environment survive and reproduce.
• Variable characteristics exist among individuals in a population.
• Natural selection, generation after generation, ensures survival.
• Physical changes acquired during an animal's life are not passed on to offspring.

Krebs Cycle

• The Krebs cycle occurs during cellular respiration.

Glycolysis

• Glycolysis occurs during protein synthesis.
• Glycolysis reduces $NAD^+$.

Genetic Drift

• Genetic drift is a change in allele frequencies in a population due to chance.

Sickle Cell Anemia

• Sickle cell anemia is caused by an autosomal point mutation.
• This mutation substitutes valine for glutamic acid in the beta chain of hemoglobin.

Autophagy

• Autophagy is a mechanism that allows:
  • The turnover of cellular organelles.

Cell Division

• Cell division of germ cells occurs by meiosis.

Genetic Disorders

• Autosomal disorders manifest with the same severity in heterozygous and homozygous individuals.
• X-linked disorders manifest severely in homozygous individuals.

Lattice Functions

• Lattice functions include:
  • Synthesizing Lipids
  • Storing calcium ions needed for muscle contraction
  • Participating in the synthesis of new cell membrane
  • Producing energy
  • Producing carbon dioxide

Genetic Crosses

• $Aa \times AA$
• $Aa \times Aa$
• $Aa \times aa$ (recessive trait)
• $aa \times aa$
• Backcross: Offspring are 50% long-tailed (dominant) and 50% short-tailed.

DNA Replication

• During DNA replication, the two strands of the double helix are duplicated one continuously and the other by means of fragments that are then joined together.

Griffith's Experiment

• Griffith demonstrated that a transforming factor exists.
• The transforming factor is DNA, and the process is transformation.

Plasmids

• Plasmids are circular molecules of extrachromosomal DNA present in bacteria.
• Plasmids contain genes that often confer characteristics useful for survival.

Consanguineous Marriages

• Consanguineous marriages increase the likelihood that children will be affected by recessive diseases because the two parents could both be healthy carriers of a recessive allele for the disease, inherited from the same ancestor.

DNA Content

• A diploid cell in G2 phase contains a quantity Q of DNA.
• After mitosis: $Q/2$
• After meiosis: $Q/4$

Enzymes

• Reverse transcriptase catalyzes the process that produces a DNA provirus.
• Topoisomerases and DNA ligase are also enzymes involved.

Feedback Inhibition

• Retroactive inhibition is when the product inhibits the metabolic pathway.

Ribozymes

• Ribozymes are RNA molecules capable of catalyzing chemical reactions.

Protists

• Protists are eukaryotic organisms, unicellular, colonial, or multicellular, which can be autotrophs or heterotrophs.

Plants

• Plants produce oxygen through photosynthesis and consume it through respiration.
• Phanerogamic plants are equipped with flowers and reproduce sexually.

Plasma Membrane

• The plasma membrane:
  • Is impermeable to small nonpolar molecules from the outside.
  • Is made up of approximately 50% proteins

Stomata

• Stomata are specialized openings in the leaves and herbaceous stems of plants, where gas exchanges can occur

Mitosis

• A phase of mitosis is not Protelophase, but Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Prometaphase are.

Cell Intake

• Ways in which certain cell types can take in substances from the outside: phagocytosis, exocytosis. autophagocytosis, cyclosis

Genetic Diseases

• Consider a genetic disease. An affected man and a healthy woman all have healthy children (male and female), while a healthy man and a affected woman have sick male children and healthy female children. From these information it can be deduced that the transmission of the disease is: X-linked dominant

Chromosome Study

• Technique used to study chromosomes: Silver impregnation.

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

• Bovine spongiform encephalopathy is caused by a prion.

Seal and Cat Evolution

• The seal and the cat are mammals and both belong to the order of carnivores. they look very different because of divergent evolution.

Genes

• Genes determine the structural and functional characteristics of each individual.

Species Definition

• Organisms can be considered to be of two different species if they cannot mate with each other to produce fertile offspring.

Heart Vascularization

• The heart cells are vascularized from the coronary arteries from the left subclavian artery.

Antibodies and Antigens

• A substance which, when injected into the body of an animal, is capable of causing the formation of antibodies is called an antigen.

Polygenic Inheritance

• In humans, skin color is determined by polygenic inheritance. This means that it is determined by the sum of the effects of multiple genes.
• Familial hypercholesterolemia genetics: A man suffering from familial hypercholesterolemia, a genetic disease dominant transmission, married to a healthy woman, had a child male and female daughter affected and a male child and a female daughter healthy female.
• We can deduce that: the man is heterozygous.

Vascular Plants

• Vascular plants absorb water from the soil mainly through the root hairs.

Chromoplasts

• Chromoplasts are organelles specific to plant cells, responsible for the pigmentation of flowers and fruits, which are divided into chloroplasts and leucoplasts that store starches, specific to plant cells.

Eukaryotic Ribosomes

• The following subunits are found in eukaryotic ribosomes: 40S and 60S.

Rh Factor

• The Rh factor is defined as a protein present on the membrane of erythrocytes.

Convergent Evolution

• Insects, birds and bats have independently developed analogous structures useful on the fly. This is an example of convergent evolution.

Proteasomes

• Proteasomes are multiprotein complexes involved in the process of intracellular protein degradation. With which molecule do they associate? Ubiquitin.

Mutations

• For a mutation to be passed on to offspring, it must occur in germinal cells. This statement is true, the RNA is necessarily contained in DNA and RNA.

Hormones and Blood Calcium Levels

• Calcitonin has the main function of lowering blood calcium levels.

Gametes

• Gametes are Germ line cells with haploid chromosome set.

Calcitonin

• Calcitonin lowers blood calcium concentration.
• Calcitonin has an agonist activity to that of parathyroid hormone.

Antibiotics

• What following diseases can be treated with an antibiotic? : Cholera .

Nervous System

• Emotions, memory and learning depend mainly depend from the limbic system.

Fish Lateral Line

• The function of the lateral line of a fish: Detect vibrations and pressure variations.

Fish Swim Bladder

• The function of the swim bladder: Buoyancy control.

Fish Body Covering

• The part of a fish's body is covered in scales: The whole body.

Fish Water Absorption

• Anatomical structures is used by fish for breathing? Gills.

Fish Fins

• The analyzed fin is found on the back of a fish, type called dorsal fin.

Fish Operculum

• The purpose of a fish's operculum is to physical protection of the gills.

Gill Combs

• The function of gill combs in a fish is to water filtering.