Comprehensive Study Guide: International Affairs 2167/2 (World War I and World War II)

Overview of the First World War ($1914-1918$)

• The First World War broke out in $1914$. It began as a European conflict but expanded by $1917$ into a global war involving the United States of America, Asia, Canada, Australia, Brazil, China, the Caribbean Islands, and most of Africa.

• The war ended a period of relative peace and industrial development enjoyed by Europe since the Napoleonic Wars.

• The conflict took place on land, in the air, on the seas, and under the seas.

The Opposing Alliances in World War One

• Allied Powers (The Entente): Britain, France, Russia, Canada, USA, Romania, Italy ($1915$), South Africa, Greece, Georgia, New Zealand, Japan, China, Portugal, Spain, Serbia, Belgium, Montenegro, Armenia, and Australia.

• Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria, and Jordan.

Technical Aspects of Fighting ($1914-1918$)

• Methods of Fighting: Air strikes, submarine warfare (U-boats), use of tanks, trench warfare, and poisonous gas.

• Naval Theaters: North Sea, English Channel, Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and the Red Sea.

• Weaponry and Equipment: Tanks, hydrophones, howitzers, rifles, battle cruisers, aeroplanes (Zeppelins), destroyers, poisonous gas, torpedoes, cruisers, machine guns, depth charges, grenades, submarines, cannons, and Dreadnoughts (battleships).

Causes of the First World War: Long-Term Factors

• The Alliance System: Initiated by Bismarck, this divided Europe into two hostile and armed camps.

• Colonial Clashes: European powers competed for territories in Africa and Asia, leading to friction (e.g., French and Italian rivalry over Tunisia).

• Naval Race: A competition for maritime supremacy, particularly between Britain and Germany.

• Arms Race: Competition in the production of armaments and the buildup of standing armies.

• Militarism: The introduction of compulsory military service and the influence of military leaders on government policy.

• Nationalism: The desire of ethnic groups, particularly in the Balkans (Slavs), for independence from the Turkish or Austro-Hungarian empires.

• Moroccan Crises: The First Moroccan Crisis ($1905$) and Second Moroccan Crisis ($1911$) tested the Anglo-French Entente.

• German Weltpolitik: A policy aimed at achieving world leadership and dominance for Germany.

• Schlieffen Plan: A German military strategy designed to defeat France quickly before turning to Russia.

• Kaiser’s Utterances: Tactless statements by Kaiser William II that provoked other nations.

Detailed Breakdown of the Alliance System ($1871-1907$)

• Dreikaiserbund / League of Three Emperors ($1872$): Signed by Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary. Members agreed to cooperate against subversive activities and consult on Balkan affairs. Bismarck aimed to isolate France.

• The Dual Alliance ($1879$): Signed by Germany and Austria-Hungary. It promised mutual aid if attacked by Russia or another power assisted by Russia.

• Renewed Dreikaiserbund ($1881$): Re-signed to prevent a Franco-Russian alliance. It allowed Austria-Hungary to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina and recognized Russian influence in Bulgaria.

• The Triple Alliance ($1882$): Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Italy joined due to resentment over French expansion in Tunis. Germany and Austria-Hungary promised to help Italy if attacked by France.

• The Re-insurance Treaty ($1887$): A secret agreement where Germany and Russia promised neutrality unless Germany attacked France or Russia attacked Austria-Hungary.

• The Franco-Russian Agreement/Dual Alliance ($1894$): Signed after the Re-insurance treaty lapsed. It provided for mutual aid if either was attacked by Germany or its allies.

• The Anglo-Japanese Alliance ($1902$): Britain’s first step out of isolation to check Russian expansion in the Far East.

• Entente Cordiale ($1904$): An agreement between Britain and France to settle colonial disputes (France gained Morocco, Britain gained Egypt).

• Anglo-Russian Agreement ($1907$): Settled disputes in Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet.

• The Triple Entente ($1907$): A loose alignment of Britain, France, and Russia to counter the Triple Alliance.

Naval and Arms Races

• Naval Competition: In $1889$, Britain vowed to keep its navy twice as strong as any two rivals combined (Two-Power Standard). Germany challenged this by doubling its warships from $31$ to $62$ between $1898$ and $1900$.

• The Dreadnought: Launched by Britain in $1906$, it was faster and stronger than existing ships, rendering them obsolete. By $1914$, Britain had $32$ Dreadnoughts and Germany had $20$.

• Arms Expenditure: Military service was increased; France moved from $2$ to $3$ years, Russia to $3.5$ years, and Germany increased its army to $5 \text{ million}$ men.

Short-term Causes: The Balkan Crisis ($1908-1914$)

• The Bosnian Crisis ($1908$): Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. This angered Serbia, which wanted those territories for a South Slav state (Yugoslavia). Russia backed down after German threats.

• First Balkan War ($1912$): The Balkan League (Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria) defeated Turkey in six weeks. The Treaty of London ($1913$) stripped Turkey of European land.

• Second Balkan War ($1913$): Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece over the division of Macedonia. Bulgaria was defeated quickly and signed the Treaty of Bucharest ($1913$).

• The Sarajevo Assassination (28 June $1914$): Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, was killed in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand (Serbian terrorist group). This served as the immediate trigger for WWI.

The Course of the First World War

• The Schlieffen Plan: Devised by Count Alfred von Schlieffen in $1905$. Objectives: Invade France through Belgium, defeat France in $6$ weeks, then move to the Eastern Front to fight Russia (assumed to take $6$ months to mobilize).

• Failure of the Schlieffen Plan: Reasons included Belgian resistance, the arrival of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), rapid Russian mobilization, and the Battle of the Marne which forced a German retreat.

• Trench Warfare: Both sides dug in from the Swiss border to the North Sea. Features: No-man's land, machine gun fire, barbed wire, heavy artillery, and poor sanitary conditions (disease and starvation).

• Major Battles:     - Battle of the Marne ($1914$): Stopped the German advance on Paris.     - Battle of Verdun ($1916$): German attempt to "bleed France white"; French resistance led by Marshal Petain.     - Battle of the Somme ($1916$): British offensive to relieve pressure on Verdun; first use of tanks.     - Battle of Jutland ($1916$): Major naval battle; British retained control of the seas.

• The Eastern Front: Russia invaded East Prussia but suffered major defeats at Tannenberg ($1914$) and Masurian Lakes under Hindenburg and Ludendorff.

• The Turkish Front / Gallipoli: Allied attempt to knock Turkey out of the war and supply Russia. It was a failure with heavy losses for British, Australian, and New Zealand troops.

• American Entry ($1917$): Triggered by unrestricted submarine warfare and the sinking of the Lusitania ($118$ Americans killed), and the Zimmermann Telegram to Mexico. Fresh US troops and resources swung the balance toward the Allies.

The Results of World War One

• Political: Collapse of four empires (German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, Russian); rise of new states (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia); abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II.

• Social: High loss of life ($1,900,000$ German soldiers killed); women gained the right to vote in several countries; improvement in communications (radio, TV).

• Economic: Massive war debts; industrial nations outside Europe (USA, Japan) gained commercial advantages; inflation and widespread unemployment in Europe.

The Paris Peace Settlement and the Treaty of Versailles

• The Big Three: Woodrow Wilson (USA - sought the "$14$ Points"), Lloyd George (Britain - sought to weaken Germany but prevent communism), Georges Clemenceau (France - sought revenge and reparations).

• Wilson’s $14$ Points: Included calls for self-determination, freedom of the seas, and the creation of a League of Nations.

• Terms of the Treaty of Versailles ($1919$):     - Territorial: Germany lost Alsace-Lorraine (to France), West Prussia and Posen (to Poland), Eupen-Malmedy (to Belgium), and North Schleswig (to Denmark). Rhineland was demilitarized.     - Military: German army limited to $100000 \text{ men}$; no air force, no submarines; navy limited to $6$ battleships.     - War Guilt: Clause $231$ forced Germany to accept total blame for the war.     - Reparations: Fixed at $6.6 \text{ billion pounds}$.

• Other Treaties: St Germain (with Austria), Neuilly (with Bulgaria), Trianon (with Hungary), Sevres/Lausanne (with Turkey).

The League of Nations

• Aims: Maintain world peace, encourage international cooperation, and solve disputes peacefully.

• Structure: General Assembly, Council, Secretariat, International Court of Justice, and International Labour Organisation (ILO).

• Successes: Aaland Islands dispute ($1920$), Greek-Bulgarian conflict ($1925$), humanitarian work (refugees, health, and drug control).

• Failures: Invasion of Corfu ($1923$), Manchurian crisis ($1931$), Abyssinian crisis ($1935$), and the failure to prevent WWII.

Fascist Italy and Mussolini

• Rise to Power: Mussolini utilized the Black Shirts to attack communists and socialists. High unemployment and fear of communism led to the March on Rome in October $1922$, where King Victor Emmanuel III appointed him Prime Minister.

• Domestic Policy: Established a totalitarian state, banned opposition, and signed the Lateran Treaty ($1929$) with the Pope. Introduced the "Battle for Births," "Battle for Wheat," and "Battle for Lira."

• Foreign Policy: Aggressive expansion including the Corfu Incident ($1923$), the invasion of Abyssinia ($1935$), and the Rome-Berlin Axis ($1936$).

Nazi Germany and Hitler

• Weimar Republic: Faced hyperinflation, the Great Depression, and multiple attempted coups (Spartacist revolt, Kapp Putsch).

• Rise of Hitler: The Nazi Party gained support during the Great Depression. Hitler used oratory, propaganda (led by Goebbels), and violence (the SA/SS). He was appointed Chancellor in January $1933$.

• Consolidation of Power: The Reichstag Fire provided an excuse for the Enabling Act ($1933$), giving Hitler dictatorial powers. He carried out the Night of the Long Knives ($1934$) to eliminate internal rivals.

• Domestic Policy: Nazi control of education, the Nuremberg Laws ($1935$) stripping Jews of citizenship, economic self-sufficiency (Autarky), and massive rearmament.

• Aggression Leading to WWII: Germany withdrew from the League of Nations ($1933$), remilitarized the Rhineland ($1936$), carried out the Anschluss with Austria ($1938$), and seized the Sudetenland after the Munich Conference ($1938$).

The Second World War ($1939-1945$)

• Causes: Failure of the League of Nations, the policy of Appeasement (Britain and France avoiding war by meeting Hitler's demands), and the Nazi-Soviet Pact ($1939$).

• The Trigger: Germany invaded Poland on 1 September $1939$ using the Blitzkrieg (lightening war) method. Britain and France declared war on 3 September.

• Course of the War:     - Fall of France ($1940$): Germany bypassed the Maginot Line by invading through the Ardennes forest.     - Battle of Britain ($1940$): Aerial battle between the RAF and Luftwaffe; Germany failed to achieve air superiority.     - Operation Barbarossa ($1941$): German invasion of the Soviet Union. Failed due to the Russian winter, the scorched earth policy, and the Battle of Stalingrad.     - Pearl Harbour (7 December $1941$): Japan attacked the US Pacific base, bringing the USA into the war.     - D-Day (6 June $1944$): Allied invasion of Normandy, sparking the liberation of Western Europe.

• The End of the War: Mussolini was executed in April $1945$; Hitler committed suicide as the Russians entered Berlin. Japan surrendered in August $1945$ after the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Results of World War Two

• Political: Formation of the United Nations (UN); emergence of the USA and USSR as superpowers (Cold War); division of Germany into four zones; decolonization of Africa and Asia.

• Social/Economic: Nuremberg trials for war crimes; massive destruction of infrastructure; development of the IMF and World Bank.