Exam Notes

Language of Anatomy

• Anatomical position: standard reference point.
• Anterior (ventral): front; Dorsal: back.
• Superior: higher; Inferior: lower.
• Medial: closer to midline; Lateral: further from midline.
• Proximal: closer to trunk; Distal: further from trunk.
• Superficial: closer to surface; Deep: further within.
• Posterior: spinal side; Anterior: abdominal side.

Regional Terms Matching

• Abdominal: belly button
• Antecubital: inside of elbow
• Axillary: armpit
• Brachial: arm
• Buccal: cheek
• Calcaneal: heel
• Carpal: hands/wrists
• Cephalic: head
• Cervical: neck
• Coxal: upper part of pelvis
• Digital: fingers/toes
• Femoral: thigh
• Gluteal: booty
• Inguinal: groin
• Lumbar: lower back
• Nasal: nose
• Occipital: back of the head
• Olecranal: elbow
• Oral: mouth
• Orbital: eye
• Patellar: knee
• Pelvic: pelvis
• Popliteal: back of knee
• Sacral: tailbone
• Scapular: shoulder blade
• Sternal: sternum (chest)
• Tarsal: feet/ankle
• Thoracic: chest cavity
• Umbilical: tummy
• Vertebral: spine

Planes

• Coronal: divides body into front and back.
• Sagittal: divides body into left and right.
• Transverse: divides body into top and bottom.
• Median: divides body into equal left and right halves.

Body Cavities

• Cranial
• Dorsal
• Pelvic
• Ventral
• Thoracic
• Vertebral
• Abdominal
• Abdomino-pelvic

Organization

• Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism

Tissue Types

• Nervous: neurons, signal transmission.
• Epithelial: outer surfaces of organs/vessels.
• Muscle: striated, smooth, or cardiac; contracts.
• Connective: supports body; adipose (fat).

Bone Types (Shape)

• Examples required for each type.

Bone Labeling

• Epiphysis
• Metaphysis
• Diaphysis
• Spongy bone
• Compact bone
• Periosteum
• Medullary cavity
• Yellow bone marrow

Bones to Label

• Carpals
• Clavicle
• Femur
• Fibula
• Frontal bone
• Humerus
• Mandible
• Maxilla
• Metacarpals
• Metatarsals
• Occipital bone
• Parietal bone
• Patella
• Pelvic girdle
• Phalanges
• Radius
• Rib cage
• Scapula
• Sphenoid
• Sternum
• Tarsals
• Temporal
• Tibia
• Ulna
• Vertebral column
• Zygomatic

Bone Cells

• Osteoblasts: build bone.
• Osteoclasts: break down bone.
• Imbalance leads to weak bones.

Fracture Repair Stages

• Description of each stage required.

Fracture Repair Methods

• Plating
• Nailing

Fracture Types (Drawings)

• Transverse
• Spiral
• Impact (comminuted)

Scans

• X-ray: 2D image.
• MRI: no radiation, detailed soft tissue.
• CT scan: internal structures (tendons, muscles, etc.).

Muscle Types

• Skeletal: striated, voluntary.
• Smooth: not striated, involuntary.
• Cardiac: striated, involuntary.

Muscle Contraction Steps

• Refer to Section 1.2.1.

Muscle Labeling

• Endomysium
• Epimysium
• Perimysium
• Fascicle
• Tendon
• Muscle cell
• Myofibril

Muscle Rules

• List all 6.

Muscle Actions

• Rotation vs. Circumduction
• Abduction vs. Adduction
• Depression vs. Elevation
• Flexion vs. Extension
• Plantar Flexion vs. Dorsiflexion

Muscle Attachments

• Origin: attachment that doesn't move.
• Insertion: attachment that does move.

Joint Types

• Fibrous: fixed, collagen.
• Cartilaginous: some movement, hyaline cartilage.
• Synovial: moveable, synovial fluid.

Joint Examples

• 6 types, 2 examples each.

Goniometer

• Measures Range of Motion (ROM).

Range of Motion (ROM)

• Amount of movement at each joint.
• Assesses injuries, measures physical therapy progress.

Knee Labeling

• Femur
• ACL
• Fibula
• Medial
• PCL
• MCL
• Tibia
• Patella
• LCL

Diagnostic Tests Matching

• Posterior drawer: PCL injury
• Valgus stress: MCL injury
• Varus stress: LCL injury
• Anterior drawer: ACL injury

Motion Types (Drawings)

• Genu Valgum: knees tilted in, toes out.
• Genu Varum: knees bent outwards.

Central vs. Peripheral Nervous System

• Differentiation required.

Brain Areas

• Cerebrum: contains four lobes.
• Cerebellum: muscle control, balance.
• Brainstem: medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain; breathing, blood pressure, sleep/wake.

Brain Lobes

• Frontal
• Parietal
• Temporal
• Occipital

Brain Function Matching

• Match brain part to function.

Brain Structures

• Gyri: ridges.
• Sulci: valleys.

Neuron Support Cells

• Glia: protection, homeostasis.

Neuron Labeling

• Dendrite
• Cell membrane
• Nucleus
• Axon
• Cell body
• Nodes of Ranvier
• Myelin sheath
• Schwann cell
• Axon terminal

Neuron Types

• Sensory: to brain.
• Interneurons: within brain.
• Motor: to muscles.

Resting Potential

• Sodium-Potassium Pump: 3 Na^+ out, 2 K^+ in.
• Resting membrane potential: -70 mV.

Depolarization

• Na^+ channels open, K^+ channels close.

Repolarization

• K^+ channels open, Na^+ channels close.

Action Potential Steps

• Events at axon end.

Neurotransmitter Matching

• Acetylcholine: muscle contraction, learning, memory
• Dopamine: pleasure, motivation, mood, attention, movement
• GABA: primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
• Glutamate: primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
• Epinephrine and nor-epinephrine: Fight or flight
• Serotonin: Mood and sleep regulation; digestion

Receptor Actions

• Agonist: activates receptor.
• Antagonist: blocks receptor.
• Inverse agonist: opposite effect of agonist.
• Reuptake inhibitor: blocks neurotransmitter reuptake.

Examples

• One example required for each.

Reflex vs. Reaction

• Differentiation needed.

Endocrine Gland Matching

• Hypothalamus: Growth, metabolism, reproduction, stress, lactation, water balance, childbirth
• Pituitary Gland: Reproduction, thyroid regulation, growth, emotions, water levels, stress
• Pineal Gland: Regulates sleep/wake cycles (melatonin)
• Thyroid Gland: Growth and development and metabolism
• Thymus: Makes white blood cells until puberty, controls pituitary gland
• Adrenal Gland: Stress, metabolism, blood pressure, immune system
• Pancreas: Blood sugar, appetite, stomach acid, when to empty your stomach
• Ovary: Estrogen and progesterone
• Testes: Testosterone

Endocrine System

• Glands release hormones.
• Hormones travel through bloodstream.
• Bind to receptors.

Sugar Response

• What happens after eating lots of sugar?

Fasting Response

• What happens when you haven’t eaten in a while?

Diabetes Types

• Type 1 vs. Type 2.

Blood Flow Diagram

• Diagram of blood flow through heart.

Valve Role

• Describe the role of valves.

Coronary Vessels

• Coronary Arteries: oxygenated blood to heart.
• Left Coronary Artery: left side of heart.
• Left Anterior Descending: front of left side.
• Circumflex Artery: outer side and back.
• Right Coronary Artery: right ventricle, atrium.

Vessel Structure Diagram

• Arteries, veins, capillaries.

Artery/Vein Placement

• Vessel: Location
• Carotid*: side of neck
• Jugular*: side of throat
• Subclavian
• Axillary
• Brachial: front of elbow
• Aorta*
• Radial*: inner wrist
• Ulnar*: inner wrist
• Brachiocephalic
• Descending aorta*
• Iliac
• Femoral: top of inner thigh
• Popliteal: back of knee
• Cephalic*
• Basilic*

Blood Pressure

• Systolic: pressure during systole (contraction).
• Diastolic: pressure during diastole (relaxation).

Sphygmomanometer

• Tool to measure blood pressure.

Blood Pressure Chart

• Complete the chart

Blood Pressure Factors

• Factors causing changes.

Cardiac Output

• Blood pumped by both ventricles in 1 minute.
• Measured in L/min.

Heart Rate

• Heart beats in 1 minute.
• Measured in bpm.

Stroke Volume

• Blood pumped per beat.
• Stable at 70 mL/beat.

Cardiac Output Formula

• Formula required.
• Example calculation needed for HR 185.

Pulse Points

• List 7 pulse points.

Ankle-Brachial Index (ABI)

• ABI = Ankle systolic pressure / Arm systolic pressure.

Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD)

• Decreased blood flow to limbs.
• Increases risk for heart attack.
• Symptoms: pain while walking, change in feet color
• Untreated: complete blood flow stop (critical limb ischemia).
• Atherosclerosis: plaque buildup.

Heart Conduction Labeling

• Right atrium
• Right ventricle
• Left atrium
• Left ventricle
• SA node
• AV node
• Bundle of His
• Purkinje fibers

Heart Conduction Steps

• Refer to 3.1.3 #6.

Heart Arrhythmia

• Definition needed.

Respiratory Labeling

• Bronchiole
• Right lung
• Right main (primary) bronchus
• Larynx
• Oral cavity
• Nostril
• Nasal cavity
• Pharynx
• Trachea
• Left main (primary) bronchus
• Alveoli
• Base of left lung
• Diaphragm

Lung Function Test

• Spirometry

Respiratory Chart

• Complete chart using 3.1.6 #2.

FEV1

• Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second.
• Under 80% indicates obstruction.

Asthma

• How it affects lungs.

Pulmonary Edema

• Definition needed.

Immunity Matching

• Red Blood Cells: Cells that transport oxygen around the body
• Total Cholesterol: Total amount of cholesterol (lol this is easy)
• LDL: Lipoprotein that transports cholesterol to cells
• HDL: Lipoprotein that transports excess cholesterol to the liver
• Triglycerides: Higher levels of this are linked with heart disease - normal is 150 mg/dL or less

Impetigo

• Bacterial skin infection, pustule formation.

Disease Agents

• List 6 agents and characteristic.

Skin Diagram Labeling

• Epidermis
• Dermis
• Subcutaneous fatty tissue
• Oil gland
• Hair
• Muscle fibers

Sepsis Stages

• Describe the three stages.

Sepsis Acronym

• TIME.

Lymphatic System

• Lymph Definition needed
• Lymph node definition needed

Lymphatic System Parts

• List parts and function from biodigital 3.2.1 #8.

Lymph Nodes

• Bean-shaped organs on lymphatic vessels.
• Filter and clean lymph.
• Contain WBCs, proteins, water, salts, fats, and waste products.

Lymph Vessels

• Afferent: unfiltered lymph in.
• Efferent: filtered lymph out.

Immunity Types

• Innate vs. Acquired.

Innate Defenses

• List innate defense mechanisms.

Illness Stages

• Prodromal: initial symptoms.
• Convalesce: recovery.

Antibody Exposure Graph

• Graph of antibody concentration.

Viral Reproduction

• Attachment
• Entry
• Uncoating
• Replication
• Assembly
• Maturation
• Release

Transmission Modes

• Direct: 2 ways.
• Indirect: 3 ways.

Eye Labeling

• Iris
• Optic nerve
• Blind spot
• Retina
• Cornea
• Pupil
• Aqueous humor
• Lens
• Vitreous humor
• Sclera
• Tapetum

Light and Retina

• What happens after light hits retina?

Subconjunctival Hemorrhage

• Description needed.

Urinary System Structures

• List the four structures.

Kidney Diagram Labeling

• Use 4.1.1 Station 2.

Nephron Diagram Labeling

• Use reliable sources.

Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)

• Rate of blood cleansing.
• Effectiveness of reabsorption/secretion.
• Kidney homeostasis maintenance.

Kidney Processes

• Tubular reabsorption vs. Tubular secretion.

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

• List 3 risk factors and 3 symptoms using reliable resources.

Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD)

• Inherited disorder.
• Types: Autosomal Dominant, Autosomal Recessive.
• Fluid-filled cysts.
• Block vessels and tubes.
• Kidney failure after decades.
• Symptoms: blood in urine, frequent urination, pain, high BP.

Urinalysis

• Three parts needed

Abnormal Urinalysis

• Possible findings and meanings.

Digestion Types

• Mechanical vs. Chemical digestion.

Digestive System Labeling

• Use 4.2.1 #2.

Digestive System Video

• Single task of digestion?
• Mechanical digestion start?
• Saliva contents?
• Food shape by tongue?
• Stomach lining release?
• Stomach substance?
• Bile from liver, enzymes from pancreas into duodenum.
• Small intestine sections: (1) Duodenum (2) Jejunum (3) Ileum.
• Most water absorbed where?

Feeding Tubes

• J-tube definition.
• G-tube definition.
  *Use reliable resources.

Ostomy

• Explain how it works using biodigital 4.2.1.

Diagnostic Procedures

• Endoscopy
• Colonoscopy
• Biopsy

Gut Microbiome

• Definition needed.

Macromolecules

• List the four macromolecules and their definitions.