Summarized Copy of [RTUCAT] RTU-Reviewer

Mga Uri ng Barayti ng Wika

  • IDYOLEK
    • Pampersonal na gamit ng wika, kadalasang yunik.
    • Bawat indibidwal ay may sariling istilo ng pahahayag at pananalita na naiiba sa bawat isa. Gaya ng pagkakaroon ng sariling paggamit ng wika na nagsisilbing simbolismo o tatak ng kanilang pagkatao.
    • Halimbawa:
      • “Magandang Gabi Bayan” ni Noli De Castro
      • “Ang buhay ay weather weather lang” ni Kuya Kim Atienza
  • DAYALEK
    • Nadedebelop sa rehiyong kinabibilangan.
    • Salitang gamit ng mga tao ayon sa partikular na rehiyon o lalawigan na kanilang kinabibilangan. Tayo ay may iba’t-ibang panrehiyon na kung tawagin ay wikain.
    • Halimbawa:
      • Tagalog=Bakit?
      • Batangas=Bakit ga?
  • SOSYOLEK
    • Pansamantalang barayti.
    • Uri ng wika na ginagamit ng isang partikular na grupo. Ang mga salitang ito ay may kinalaman sa katayuang sosyong ekonomiko at kasarian ng indibidwal na gumagamit ng mga naturang salita.
    • Halimbawa:
      • Repapis, ala na aku datung eh (Pare, wala na akong pera)
      • Oh my God! It’s so mainit naman dito. (Naku, ang init naman dito!)
  • ETNOLEK
    • Nadedevelop mula sa mga salita ng mga etnolinggwistikong grupo.
    • Dahil sa pagkakaroon ng maraming pangkat etniko, sumibol ang iba’t ibang uri ng Etnolek.
    • Halimbawa:
      • Vakuul - tumutukoy sa mga gamit ng mga ivatan na pantakip sa kanilang ulo tuwing panahon ng tag-init at tag-ulan.
  • EKOLEK
    • Kadalasang mula o sinasalita sa loob ng bahay.
    • Halimbawa:
      • Palikuran - Banyo at kubeta
      • Silid tulugan o pahingahan - Kwarto
  • PIDGIN
    • Wikang walang pormal na estruktura.
    • Ito ay ginagamit ng dalawang taong nag-uusap na magkaiba ang wika. Walang komong ginagamit. Umaasa lamang sa “make-shift” na salita o mga pansamantala lamang.
    • Halimbawa:
      • Ako kita ganda babae. (Nakakita ako ng magandang babae)
      • Kayo bili alak akin (Kayo na ang bumili ng alak para sa akin)
  • CREOLE
    • Nadedebelop ang pormal na estruktura.
    • Mga barayti ng wika na nadedebelop dahil sa pinaghalo-halong salita ng indibidwal, mula sa magkaibang lugar hanggang sa ito ay naging pangunahing wika ng partikular na lugar. Halimbawa nito ay ang Chavacano.
    • Halimbawa:
      • Mi Nombre - ang pangalan ko
      • Di donde lugar to? - taga saan ka?
  • REJISTER
    • Wikang espesyalisadong nagagamit sa isang partikular na domeyn.
    • Halimbawa:
      • Mga salitang Jejemon
      • Mga salitang binabaliktad at sa mga texts
  • JARGON
    • Isang Ingles na salita na tumutukoy sa mga espesyal na salita o ekspresyon na ginagamit ng isang partikular ng grupo ng mga taong propesyunal at mga espesyalista.
    • Halimbawa:
      • AWOL - Absent Without Official Leave - Ginagamit ng mga may katungkulan at/o may mga employer
      • G! - Ginagamit ng mga millennial na ang ibig sabihin ay "Go!"
      • Ctrl-Alt-Delete - Ginagamit ng may mga alam sa kompyuter

TOWER OF BABEL

  • The Tower of Babel (Hebrew: בלֶבָּ דּלַגְמִ, Migdal Bavel) as told in Genesis 11:1-9 is an origin myth meant to explain why the world's peoples speak different languages. … God, observing their city and tower, confounds their speech so that they can no longer understand each other, and scatters them around the world.

Speech Styles

  1. FROZEN STYLE
    • Used generally in very formal setting.
    • Most formal communicative style for respectful situation
    • Does not require any feedback from the audience
    • Usually uses long sentences with good grammar and vocabulary
    • The use of language is fixed and relatively static
    • Examples: national pledge, anthem, school creeds, marriage ceremonies, speech for a state ceremo
  2. FORMAL STYLE
    • Used in speaking to medium to large groups
    • May also be used in single hearers- strangers, older persons, professional
    • Speaker must frame whole sentences ahead before they are delivered
    • Avoids using slang terminologies language is comparatively rigid and has a set, agreed upon vocabulary that is well documented; is often of a standard variety.
    • Examples: meetings, speeches, school lessons, court, a corporate meeting, at a swearing in ceremony, in an interview or in a classroom
  3. CONSULTATIVE STYLE
    • Used in semi-formal communication
    • Happens in two-way participation
    • Most operational among other styles
    • Speaker does not usually plan what he wants to say
    • Sentences end to be shorter and spontaneous
    • Examples: regular conversation at schools, companies, group discussion, teacher-student, doctor-patient, expert-apprentice
  4. CASUAL STYLE
    • Language used between friends
    • Often very relaxed and focused on just getting the information out
    • Slangs are quite often used in these instances
    • This style is used in informal situations and language
    • Relationship between speaker and hearer is closed.
    • Examples: casual conversations with friends, family members, chats, phone calls and messages
  5. INTIMATE STYLE
    • Completely private language used within family of very close friends or group
    • Uses personal language codes
    • Grammar is unnecessary
    • Does not need complete language
    • Certain terms of endearment, slangs or expressions whose meaning is shared with a small subset of persons to person

Purpose of Speech

  • The general purpose of any speech will be either to Inform; Motivate/Persuade; or Entertain your audience.
  • As soon as you know the general purpose of your speech you can develop your Specific Purpose Statement (What the speaker will accomplish).
  • Your Specific Purpose Statement is used to develop your speech.
  • Correct term for SWP
  • Kinesics-Kinesics is the interpretation of body motion communication such as facial expressions and gestures, nonverbal behavior related to movement of any part of the body or the body as a

PHILO

  • Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem and self-actualization. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up.
  • The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes: Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what motivates us, and so on.
    1. Physiological needs
      • These are biological requirements for human survival, e.g., air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.
      • If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met.
    2. Safety needs
      • Protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.
    3. Love and belongingness needs
      • After physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. The need for interpersonal relationships motivates behavior Examples include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
    4. Esteem needs
      • Which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.
    5. Self-actualization needs
      • Realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable of becoming”(Maslow, 1987, p. 64).
  • Definition
    • Self-esteem - confidence in one's own worth or abilities; self-respect.
    • Self Concept - an idea of the self constructed from the beliefs one holds about oneself and the responses of others.
    • Self Confidence - a feeling of trust in one's abilities, qualities, and judgment.

Science

  • Nuclear fission
    • Is a reaction wherein a heavy nucleus is bombarded by neutrons and thus becomes unstable, which causes it to decompose into two nuclei with equivalent size and magnitude, with a great detachment of energy and the emission of two or three neutrons.
  • Nuclear Fussion
    • It is a nuclear process, where energy is produced by smashing together light atoms. It is the opposite reaction to fission, where heavy isotopes are split apart. Fusion is the process by which the sun and other stars generate light and heat.
  • Convergence Theory
    • States that as nations transition from the beginning stages of industrialization to highly industrialized nations, the same societal patterns will emerge, eventually creating a global culture.
  • Convergent Plate
    • A tectonic boundary where two plates are moving toward each other. If the two plates are of equal density, they usually push up against each other, forming a mountain chain. If they are of unequal density, one plate usually sinks beneath the other in a subduction zone.
  • Who discovered the the table of elements in 1869?
    • In 1869 Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev started the development of the periodic table, arranging chemical elements by atomic mass. He predicted the discovery of other elements, and left spaces open in his periodic table for them.
  • Mohs scale of mineral hardness
    • Talc: Mg3Si4O10(OH)2; Absolute hardness: 1
    • Gypsum: CaSO4\cdot2H2O; Absolute hardness: 3
    • Calcite: CaCO3; Absolute hardness: 9
    • Fluorite: CaF2; Absolute hardness: 21
    • Apatite: Ca5(PO4)3(OH^−,Cl^−,F^−); Absolute hardness: 48
    • Orthoclase feldspar: KAlSi3O8; Absolute hardness: 72
    • Quartz: SiO2; Absolute hardness: 100
    • Topaz: Al2SiO4(OH^−,F^−)2; Absolute hardness: 200
    • Corundum: Al2O3; Absolute hardness: 400
    • Diamond: C; Absolute hardness: 1500
  • Hermaprodite
    • In biology, a hermaphrodite is an organism that has complete or partial reproductive organs and produces gametes normally associated with both male and female sexes. Many taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrates) do not have separate sexes.
  • Earliest writing system of Sumerians - cuneiform
  • Step pyramid of Sumerians - ziggurat
  • Layers of earth
    • Crust
      • The crust is everything we can see and study directly. The thinnest layer of the Earth, the crust still measures about 40 km on average, ranging from 5–70 km (~3–44 miles) in depth. But at the scale of the planet, that’s less than the skin of an apple.
      • There are two types of crust: continental and oceanic crust. Oceanic crust can be found at the bottom of the oceans or below the continental crust; it is generally harder and deeper, consisting of denser rocks like basalt, while continental crust contains granite-type rocks and sediments. The continental crust thicker on land.
    • Mantle
      • The mantle extends down 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of Earth. It makes up about 84% of Earth’s volume. Everything we know about the mantle we know indirectly, as no human study managed to go beyond the crust. Most of the things we know about the mantle we know from seismologic studies (more on that later).
      • The mantle is also divided into several layers, based on seismologic properties. The upper mantle extends from where the crust ends to about 670 km. Even though this area is regarded as viscous, you can also consider it as formed from rock – a rock called peridotite to be more precise. Below that, the lower mantle extends from 670 to almost 2900 kilometers below the surface.
      • It’s basically accepted by now that the mantle is not in a steady state, but rather in a state of constant motion. There is a general convective circulation, with hot material upwelling towards the surface and cooler material going deeper. It is generally thought that this convection actually directs the circulation of the plate tectonics in the crust.
    • Core
      • Inner Core
        • The temperatures and pressures of the inner core are absolutely extreme, at approximately 5,400 °C (9,800 °F) and 330 to 360 gigapascals (3,300,000 to 3,600,000 atm).
        • It’s generally believed that the inner core is growing very slowly – as the core cools down, more of the outer core solidifies and becomes a part of the inner core. The cooling rate is very low thought, at about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years. However, even this slow growth is thought to have a significant impact in the generation of Earth’s magnetic field by dynamo action in the liquid outer core.
      • Outer Core
        • The outer core is a low viscosity fluid (about ten times the viscosity of liquid metals at the surface) – “liquid” is a rather improper term. Because it has a very low viscosity, it is easily deformed and malleable. It is the site of violent convection. It is also thought to suffer very violent convection currents – hey, and guess what? The churning of the outer core and its relative movement is responsible for the Earth’s magnetic field.
        • The hottest part of the outer core is actually hotter than the inner core; temperatures can reach 6,000° Celsius (10,800° Fahrenheit)—as hot as the surface of the sun.
  • How old is the universe?
    • 13.8 billion years
  • Small Unit of Matter
    • An atom is the smallest unit of matter. It is the smallest component of an element that still has the properties of that element.
  • Dalton’s Atomic Theory
    • Dalton's atomic theory proposed that all matter was composed of atoms, indivisible and indestructible building blocks. While all atoms of an element were identical, different elements had atoms of differing size and mass.
  • Which planet is gigantic?
    • Jupiter
  • Which planet is not a gas gigantic?
    • A gas giant is a large planet composed mostly of gases, such as hydrogen and helium, with a relatively small rocky core. The gas giants of our solar system are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

Light rays

  • What is a light ray?
    • The basic element in geometrical optics is the light ray, a hypothetical construct that indicates the direction of the propagation of light at any point in space. The origin of this concept dates back to early speculations regarding the nature of light. By the 17th century the Pythagorean notion of visual rays had long been abandoned, but the observation that light travels in straight lines led naturally to the development of the ray concept. It is easy to imagine representing a narrow beam of light by a collection of parallel arrows—a bundle of rays. As the beam of light moves from one medium to another, reflects off surfaces, disperses, or comes to a focus, the bundle of rays traces the beam’s progress in a simple geometrical manner.
    • Geometrical optics consists of a set of rules that determine the paths followed by light rays. In any uniform medium the rays travel in straight lines. The light emitted by a small localized source is represented by a collection of rays pointing radially outward from an idealized “point source.” A collection of parallel rays is used to represent light flowing with uniform intensity through space; examples include the light from a distant star and the light from a laser. The formation of a sharp shadow when an object is illuminated by a parallel beam of light is easily explained by tracing the paths of the rays that are not blocked by the object.

Reflection, Refraction and Diffraction

  • Reflection of Waves
    • If a linear object attached to an oscillator bobs back and forth within the water, it becomes a source of straight waves. These straight waves have alternating crests and troughs. As viewed on the sheet of paper below the tank, the crests are the dark lines stretching across the paper and the troughs are the bright lines. These waves will travel through the water until they encounter an obstacle - such as the wall of the tank or an object placed within the water. The diagram below depicts a series of straight waves approaching a long barrier extending at an angle across the tank of water. The direction that these wavefronts (straight-line crests) are traveling through the water is represented by the blue arrow. The blue arrow is called a ray and is drawn perpendicular to the wavefronts. Upon reaching the barrier placed within the water, these waves bounce off the water and head in a different direction. The diagram below shows the reflected wavefronts and the reflected ray. Regardless of the angle at which the wavefronts approach the barrier, one general law of reflection holds true: the waves will always reflect in such a way that the angle at which they approach the barrier equals the angle at which they reflect off the barrier. This is known as the law of reflection.
    • The discussion above pertains to the reflection of waves off of straight surfaces. But what if the surface is curved, perhaps in the shape of a parabola? What generalizations can be made for the reflection of water waves off parabolic surfaces? Suppose that a rubber tube having the shape of a parabola is placed within the water. The diagram below depicts such a parabolic barrier in the ripple tank. Several wavefronts are approaching the barrier; the ray is drawn for these wavefronts. Upon reflection off the parabolic barrier, the water waves will change direction and head towards a point. This is depicted in the diagram below. It is as though all the energy being carried by the water waves is converged at a single point - the point is known as the focal point. After passing through the focal point, the waves spread out through the water.
  • Refraction of Waves
    • Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier. Refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another. Refraction, or the bending of the path of the waves, is accompanied by a change in speed and wavelength of the waves. It was mentioned that the speed of a wave is dependent upon the properties of the medium through which the waves travel. So if the medium (and its properties) is changed, the speed of the waves is changed. The most significant property of water that would affect the speed of waves traveling on its surface is the depth of the water. Water waves travel fastest when the medium is the deepest. Thus, if water waves are passing from deep water into shallow water, they will slow down. This decrease in speed will also be accompanied by a decrease in wavelength. So as water waves are transmitted from deep water into shallow water, the speed decreases, the wavelength decreases, and the direction changes.
    • This boundary behavior of water waves can be observed in a ripple tank if the tank is partitioned into a deep and a shallow section. If a pane of glass is placed in the bottom of the tank, one part of the tank will be deep and the other part of the tank will be shallow. Waves traveling from the deep end to the shallow end can be seen to refract (i.e., bend), decrease wavelength (the wavefronts get closer together), and slow down (they take a longer time to travel the same distance). When traveling from deep water to shallow water, the waves are seen to bend in such a manner that they seem to be traveling more perpendicular to the surface. If traveling from shallow water to deep water, the waves bend in the opposite direction.
  • Diffraction of Waves
    • Diffraction of water waves is observed in a harbor as Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier; refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another; and diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening or around a barrier in their path. Water waves have the ability to travel around corners, around obstacles and through openings. This ability is most obvious for water waves with longer wavelengths. Diffraction can be demonstrated by placing small barriers and obstacles in a ripple tank and observing the path of the water waves as they encounter the obstacles. The waves are seen to pass around the barrier into the regions behind it; subsequently the water behind the barrier is disturbed. The amount of diffraction (the sharpness of the bending) increases with increasing wavelength and decreases with decreasing wavelength. In fact, when the wavelength of the waves is smaller than the obstacle, no noticeable diffraction occurs.
    • Waves bend around small boats and are found to disturb the water behind them. The same waves however are unable to diffract around larger boats since their wavelength is smaller than the boat. Diffraction of sound waves is commonly observed; we notice sound diffracting around corners, allowing us to hear others who are speaking to us from adjacent rooms. Many forest-dwelling birds take advantage of the diffractive ability of long-wavelength sound waves. Owls for instance are able to communicate across long distances due to the fact that their long-wavelength hoots are able to diffract around forest trees and carry farther than the short-wavelength tweets of songbirds. Diffraction is observed of light waves but only when the waves encounter obstacles with extremely small wavelengths (such as particles suspended in our atmosphere).
    • Reflection, refraction and diffraction are all boundary behaviors of waves associated with the bending of the path of a wave. The bending of the path is an observable behavior when the medium is a two- or three-dimensional medium. Reflection occurs when there is a bouncing off of a barrier. Reflection of waves off straight barriers follows the law of reflection. Reflection of waves off parabolic barriers results in the convergence of the waves at a focal point. Refraction is the change in direction of waves that occurs when waves travel from one medium to another. Refraction is always accompanied by a wavelength and speed change. Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles and openings. The amount of diffraction increases with increasing wavelength.

Relativity Theory

  • Albert Einstein, in his theory of special relativity, determined that the laws of physics are the same for all non-accelerating observers, and he showed that the speed of light within a vacuum is the same no matter the speed at which an observer travels.

Parts of table of elements

  • 3 Main Parts of the Periodic Table
    • The periodic table lists the chemical elements in order of increasing atomic number, which is the number of protons in each atom of an element. The shape of the table and way the elements are arranged has significance. Each of the elements can be assigned to one of three broad categories of elements:
      • Metals
        • With the exception of hydrogen, the elements on the left-hand side of the periodic table are metals. Actually, hydrogen acts as a metal, too, in its solid state, but the element is a gas at ordinary temperatures and pressures and does not display metallic character under these conditions.
        • Metal properties include:
          • Metallic luster
          • High electrical and thermal conductivity
          • Usual hard solids (mercury is liquid)
          • Usually ductile (capable of being drawn into a wire) and malleable (capable of being hammered into thin sheets)
          • Most have high melting points
          • Readily lose electrons (low electron affinity)
          • Low ionization energies
        • The two rows of elements below the body of the periodic table are metals. Specifically, they are a collection of transition metals that are called the lanthanides and actinides or the rare earth metals. These elements are located below the table because there wasn't a practical way to insert them into the transition metal section without making the table look strange.
      • Metalloids (or Semimetals)
        • There is a zig-zag line toward the right side of the periodic table that acts as a sort of border between metals and nonmetals. Elements on either side of this line exhibit some properties of metals and some of the nonmetals. These elements are the metalloids, also called semimetals.
        • Metalloids have variable properties, but often:
          • Metalloids have multiple forms or allotropes
          • Can be made to conduct electricity under special conditions (semiconductors)
      • Nonmetals
        • The elements on the right-hand side of the periodic table are the nonmetals.
        • Nonmetals properties are:
          • Usually poor conductors of heat and electricity
          • Often liquids or gases at room temperature and pressure
          • Lack metallic luster
          • Readily gain electrons (high electron affinity)
          • High ionization energy
  • Periods and Groups in the Periodic Table
    • The arrangement of the periodic table organizes elements with related properties. Two general categories are groups and periods:
      • Element Groups
        • Groups are the columns of the table. Atoms of elements within a group have the same number of valence electrons. These elements share many similar properties and tend to act the same way as each other in chemical reactions.
      • Element Periods
        • The rows in the periodic table are called periods. Atoms of these elements all share the same highest electron energy level.
  • Chemical Bonding To Form Compounds
    • You can use the organization of elements in the periodic table to predict how elements will form bonds with each other to form compounds.
      • Ionic Bonds
        • Ionic bonds form between atoms with very different electronegativity values. Ionic compounds form crystal lattices containing positively charged cation and negatively-charged anions. Ionic bonds form between metals and nonmetals. Because ions are fixed in place in a lattice, ionic solids don't conduct electricity. However, the charged particles move freely when ionic compounds are dissolved in water, forming conductive electrolytes.
      • Covalent Bonds
        • Atoms share electrons in covalent bonds. This type of bond forms between nonmetal atoms. Remember hydrogen is also considered a nonmetal, so its compounds formed with other nonmetals have covalent bonds.
      • Metallic Bonds
        • Metals also bond to other metals to share valence electrons in what becomes an electron sea surrounding all the affected atoms. Atoms of different metals form alloys, which have distinct properties from their component elements. Because the electrons can move freely, metals readily conduct electricity.
  • What is the softest mineral?
    • Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2

Laws of Motion

  • Sir Isaac Newton's three laws of motion describe the motion of massive bodies and how they interact. While Newton's laws may seem obvious to us today, more than three centuries ago they were considered revolutionary.
  • The First Law of Motion states, "A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will remain in motion unless it is acted upon by an external force." This simply means that things cannot start, stop, or change direction all by themselves. It takes some force acting on them from the outside to cause such a change. This property of massive bodies to resist changes in their state of motion is sometimes called inertia.
  • The Second Law of Motion describes what happens to a massive body when it is acted upon by an external force. It states, "The force acting on an object is equal to the mass of that object times its acceleration." This is written in mathematical form as F = ma, where F is force, m is mass, and a is acceleration. The bold letters indicate that force and acceleration are vector quantities, which means they have both magnitude and direction. The force can be a single force, or it can be the vector sum of more than one force, which is the net force after all the forces are combined. When a constant force acts on a massive body, it causes it to accelerate, i.e., to change its velocity, at a constant rate. In the simplest case, a force applied to an object at rest causes it to accelerate in the direction of the force. However, if the object is already in motion, or if this situation is viewed from a moving reference frame, that body might appear to speed up, slow down, or change direction depending on the direction of the force and the directions that the object and reference frame are moving relative to each other.
  • The Third Law of Motion states, "For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction." This law describes what happens to a body when it exerts a force on another body. Forces always occur in pairs, so when one body pushes against another, the second body pushes back just as hard. For example, when you push a cart, the cart pushes back against you; when you pull on a rope, the rope pulls back against you; when gravity pulls you down against the ground, the ground pushes up against your feet; and when a rocket ignites its fuel behind it, the expanding exhaust gas pushes on the rocket causing it to accelerate.
  • If one object is much, much more massive than the other, particularly in the case of the first object being anchored to the Earth, virtually all of the acceleration is imparted to the second object, and the acceleration of the first object can be safely ignored. For instance, if you were to throw a baseball to the west, you would not have to consider that you actually caused the rotation of the Earth to speed up ever so slightly while the ball was in the air. However, if you were standing on roller skates, and you threw a bowling ball forward, you would start moving backward at a noticeable speed.

Electron, protons and neutrons

  • Atoms are made of extremely tiny particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons.
  • Protons and neutrons are in the center of the atom, making up the nucleus.
  • Electrons surround the nucleus.
  • Protons have a positive charge.
  • Electrons have a negative charge.
  • The charge on the proton and electron are exactly the same size but opposite.
  • Neutrons have no charge.
  • Since opposite charges attract, protons and electrons attract each other.
  • What are the three different tiny particles that make up an atom? Protons, neutrons, and electrons.
  • Which of these is in the center of the atom? Protons and neutrons are in the center (nucleus) of the atom. You may want to mention that hydrogen is the only atom that usually has no neutrons. The nucleus of most hydrogen atoms is composed of just 1 proton. A small percentage of hydrogen atoms have 1 or even 2 neutrons. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. These will be discussed in Lesson 2.
  • What zooms around the nucleus of an atom? Electrons
  • Which one has a positive charge, a negative charge, and no charge? Proton—positive; electron—negative; neutron—no charge. The charge on the proton and electron are exactly the same size but opposite. The same number of protons and electrons exactly cancel one another in a neutral atom.
  • Electrons
    • Electrons are one of three main types of particles that make up atoms. The other two types are protons and neutrons. Unlike protons and neutrons, which consist of smaller, simpler particles, electrons are fundamental particles that do not consist of smaller particles. They are a type of fundamental particles called leptons. All leptons have an electric charge of −1 or 0.
    • Electrons are extremely small. The mass of an electron is only about 1/2000 the mass of a proton or neutron, so electrons contribute virtually nothing to the total mass of an atom. Electrons have an electric charge of −1, which is equal but opposite to the charge of a proton, which is +1 . All atoms have the same number of electrons as protons, so the positive and negative charges "cancel out", making atoms electrically neutral.
    • Unlike protons and neutrons, which are located inside the nucleus at the center of the atom, electrons are found outside the nucleus. Because opposite electric charges attract each other, negative electrons are attracted to the positive nucleus. This force of attraction keeps electrons constantly moving through the otherwise empty space around the nucleus. The figure below is a common way to represent the structure of an atom. It shows the electron as a particle orbiting the nucleus, similar to the way that planets orbit the sun. This is however, an incorrect perspective, as electrons are more complicated as quantum mechanics demonstrate.
    • Electrons are much smaller than protons or neutrons. If an electrons were the mass of a penny, a proton or a neutrons would have the mass of a large bowling ball!
  • Protons
    • A proton is one of three main particles that make up the atom. The other two particles are the neutron and electron. Protons are found in the nucleus of the atom. This is a tiny, dense region at the center of the atom. Protons have a positive electrical charge of one (+1) and a mass of 1 atomic mass unit (amu), which is about 1.67\times10^{-27} kilograms. Together with neutrons, they make up virtually all of the mass of an atom.
  • Neutrons
    • Atoms of all elements - except for most atoms of hydrogen - have neutrons in their nucleus. Unlike protons and electrons, which are electrically charged, neutrons have no charge - they are electrically neutral. That's why the neutrons in the diagram above are labeled n0 . The zero stands for "zero charge". The mass of a neutron is slightly greater than the mass of a proton, which is 1 atomic mass unit (amu). (An atomic mass unit equals about 1.67\times10^{-27} kilograms.) A neutron also has about the same diameter as a proton, or 1.7×1017 meters.
    • As you might have already guessed from its name, the neutron is neutral. In other words, it has no charge whatsoever, and is therefore neither attracted to nor repelled from other objects. Neutrons are in every atom (with one exception), and they're bound together with other neutrons and protons in the atomic nucleus.
    • Before we move on, we must discuss