British Museum Controversies: Theft, Repatriation, and Ethical Considerations

Introduction to Museum Controversies

  • The British Museum is a focal point for discussions on controversy, theft, and repatriation.
  • Views on the museum's collection range from accusations of stolen artifacts to justifications of acquisition as fair and square.
  • The majority of the collection (60% being British) is uncontested, but some famous objects are highly debated.
  • Focus will be on five specific contested objects:
    • Hoa Hakananai'a from Rapa Nui.
    • The Gweagal Shield from Australia.
    • The Rosetta Stone from Egypt.
    • The Benin Bronzes from Nigeria.
    • The Parthenon Sculptures (Elgin Marbles) from Greece.
  • The lecture will cover the controversies surrounding these objects, how they came to the museum, relevant laws, British attitudes, and the museum's origins.
  • Museums are inherently political institutions that curate stories from specific perspectives, necessitating critical examination.
  • The presenter believes in repatriation but acknowledges the complexity of these issues.
  • Most objects in the British Museum were ethically acquired through purchase or gifts.
  • Controversial items were often stolen and then sold to the museum, which knowingly accepted them.
  • It's important to avoid imposing repatriation on communities that do not request it.

Hoa Hakananai'a

  • Hoa Hakananai'a is a four-ton basalt statue from Rapa Nui (Easter Island), now a political territory of Chile.
  • These statues are believed to embody the spirit of specific ancestors.
  • Carved around 1200, this Moai was taken by the British in 1869. Captain Richard Powell of the HMS Topaz took them to give as gifts to Queen Victoria.
  • The statue was repurposed by natives for a spiritual practice at the time when Powell took it and they were very much in use.
  • Queen Victoria donated them to the British Museum.
  • A Rapa Nui development commissioner compared the removal to taking someone's grandfather to display in a living room.
  • The repatriation of Hoa Hakananai'a is an absolute priority for Rapa Nui natives.
  • Rapa Nui natives have requested the repatriation of their ancestral moai from museums worldwide.
  • In November 2019, a delegation from Rapa Nui visited the British Museum to formally request repatriation.
  • Sculptor Benedicto Tuki offered to make an exact replica in exchange for the original, which he wished to return home.
  • The delegation brought offerings for Hawaii, but there have been no further public talks, though the information plaque has been slightly altered to remove disingenuous language.
  • The British Museum has floated the idea of a loan but hasn't committed to anything.

Arguments Against Repatriation

  • Finders Keepers Argument: Claims that actions followed the laws and rules of the time.
    • Often used by those who view the British Empire fondly and want to keep items as evidence of British greatness or British identity.
  • Better Care Argument: Assumes the British Museum can care for items better than their country of origin.
    • Ignores the damage some items have endured at the museum.
    • Disregards the capabilities of countries like Egypt and Greece to care for their own items.
    • This argument is labeled as paternalism.
  • Some items might have been lost if repatriated, such as Assyrian Lamassu destroyed by ISIS.
  • World Culture Argument: Claims that more people can see the objects in the British Museum.
    • Raises questions about who benefits from the concept of world culture and where it should be held.
    • The concept of world culture originated in the 19th and early 20th centuries, benefiting white Europeans.
  • A 2021 poll indicates that over 60% of Britons support returning historical artifacts.

The Gweagal Shield

  • The Gweagal Shield is a lesser-known contested object at the British Museum.
  • Rodney Kelly claims his ancestor, Cooman, used the shield against Captain James Cook and his crew.
  • After wounding Cooman, Cook's crew stole the shield and spear as trophies.
  • The shield is displayed in the Enlightenment Gallery, meant to resemble an 18th-century gentleman collector's collection.
  • Kelly asserts these details are established family history and are supported by Cook's and Joseph Banks' diaries.
  • The shield has a hole, which indigenous Australians believe is from a musket shot, while others say it's from a single-pointed lance.
  • Kelly wants full repatriation to a museum in Sydney, not a loan, for the Elders of the Gweagal people to decide its use and history.
  • The shield is a symbol of imperial aggression and indigenous resistance.
  • The Gweagal people also want spears and artifacts returned to the Australian Museum in Sydney.
  • The British Museum is the largest holder of Aboriginal objects outside of Australia.
  • A team of experts determined the shield is unlikely to be the one used by Cooman, and the hole was not made by a firearm.
  • Gay Scullthorpe, an indigenous Tasmanian curator, believes the shield should remain at the British Museum to tell the story of the relationship between the British and Aboriginal Australia.
  • Kelly and the Gweagal people continue to engage with the British Museum regarding their claim.
  • The museum acknowledges the cultural significance of the shield and is open to dialogue.

History of the Enlightenment Gallery and Sir Hans Sloane

  • The British Museum's origins are tied to Sir Hans Sloane, an Irish physician and collector.
  • Sloane collected over 71,000 objects, including plants, books, manuscripts, coins, and medals.
  • Sloane married Elizabeth Langley Rose, a wealthy heiress of sugar plantations in Jamaica worked by enslaved people with the money he earned from slave labor.
  • Sloane stipulated in his will that Parliament could buy his collection for 20,000.
  • In 2020, the museum placed Sloane's bust in a case with added context due to his connections to slavery.
  • Sloane's culture and mindset continue to influence modern museum culture.
  • The museum retains valid elements of this culture, like education, but critiques the obsession with collecting and its connection to categorization and Eugenics.

The Rosetta Stone

  • The Rosetta Stone is the most visited object in the British Museum.
  • It was crucial in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs, featuring three languages: ancient Greek, demotic, and hieroglyphs.
  • Arabic scholars had been studying them for centuries before western scholars.
  • In 1799, Napoleon's soldiers discovered the stone in Rosetta (al-Rashid) while building foundations for a fort.
  • British forces seized the stone in 1801 under the Treaty of Alexandria.
  • The museum argues the treaty included the signature of an Ottoman admiral representing Egypt.
  • Jean-François Champollion deciphered the hieroglyphs in 1822, sparking a wave of egyptomania.
  • 28 similar copies of the decree have been found in Egypt.
  • Egyptians argue the Ottoman admiral had no right to sign on behalf of Egypt and that the stone was plundered during a foreign war.
  • Antiquities lawyers consider the Rosetta Stone a difficult legal battle.
  • A petition is circulating among Egyptians demanding its return.
  • There are arguments for the convenience for the public who visit the British museum.
  • Egypt has invested heavily in protecting its antiquities, with the new Grand Egyptian Museum in Giza.
  • The British altered the stone, infuriating many Egyptians.

British Museum Laws and Repatriation

  • The British Museum has repatriated human remains (e.g., bone fragments from New Zealand in 2008) and objects with clear evidence of theft.
  • In 2019, Buddhist terracotta heads stolen by the Taliban were returned to Afghanistan.
  • The British Museum Act of 1963 governs the trustees' actions and dictates when objects can be de-accessioned.
  • The Act states that the Board of Trustees isn't allowed to just sell, exchange, or wantonly give away objects in the museum.
  • Exceptions exist for exact duplicates or objects deemed unfit for retention without detriment to the public or scholars.
  • Trustees may not be subject matter experts, raising concerns about their qualifications to make decisions on archaeology and repatriation.
  • The strict de-accessioning policy aims to prevent backroom deals but can put decisions in the hands of non-experts.
  • Changes proposed to the Charities Act could allow more freedom for public museums to de-accession and repatriate objects with a compelling moral obligation.
  • In 2022, the Victoria and Albert Museum repatriated the Eros head to Turkey as a long-term loan.
  • The British Museum has not returned any artifact to its country of origin in response to a repatriation request since the start of the last century.

The Benin Bronzes

  • The Benin Bronzes are brass sculptures from the 16th century in the Kingdom of Benin (modern Nigeria).
  • Their acquisition by the British was brutal and violent, with no diplomatic pretext.
  • In the late 19th century, European powers, including Britain, engaged in the Scramble for Africa.
  • Britain clashed with the Kingdom of Benin over trading conditions.
  • In January 1897, a British trade mission ignored warnings and entered Benin City, leading to the deaths of British delegates and African carriers.
  • The British launched a military expedition, capturing Benin City in February 1897.
  • Thousands of plaques and sculptures were looted from the palace grounds; 200 are held by the British Museum.
  • In 1897, the British Museum displayed Benin plaques and received most of its collection over time.
  • In 1950 and 1951, the British Museum de-accessioned 25 bronzes to Nigeria and the Gold Coast.
  • The Nigerian government is planning a grand Cultural District to house these treasures and world-class schools for artists.
  • In October 2022, an American group filed action to stop the Smithsonian from repatriating 29 bronzes to Nigeria, claiming that The Heirs of American slaves have as much right to the Benin bronzes today as the Nigerian government.
  • The British Museum highlights the colonial violence that brought the bronzes to the museum.
  • The Horniman Museum in London is returning 72 Benin items, and Germany and Cambridge University have also returned bronzes.

The Parthenon Sculptures (Elgin Marbles)

  • The Parthenon Sculptures were originally attached to the Parthenon in Athens, completed in 437 BCE.
  • Scottish nobleman Lord Elgin removed the sculptures in the early 19th century while serving as an ambassador to Ottoman-controlled Greece.
  • The temple was damaged by earthquakes and war, including an explosion in 1667.
  • Elgin initially sought permission to take casts and drawings but later began removing pieces for profit.
  • He claimed to have permission from the sultan, presenting a Furman (legally binding document), but no hard evidence of either Furman has ever been found.
  • Sculptures were taken to Malta and then to England.
  • In 1816, the House of Commons investigated Elgin's claims and purchased the sculptures for 35,000.
  • Damage occurred during removal, transport, and cleaning, with museum employees using caustic chemicals to clean the marbles in the 1930s.
  • The cleaning efforts removed a significant amount of detail and the natural honey coloring of the marble.
  • The British Museum has confirmed talks with Greece about a landmark agreement to return some sculptures.
  • The museum is seeking new, positive long-term partnerships with countries and communities around the world, including Greece.
  • The British Museum is also stating that it is not going to dismantle their great collection as it tells a unique story of our common humanity.

Conclusion

  • The presenter believes in repatriation, even in cases where treaties and furmans exist.
  • The presenter questions whether we have progressed since the days of gentlemen collectors like Sir Hans Sloane.