Northern Ireland

The O'Neill Years (1963-1969)

Introduction to Terence O’Neill

  • Year of Becoming Prime Minister: 1963

  • Background: Young, part of a new generation of politicians.

  • Personal Objective: Sought to ‘build bridges between our two communities’ (Protestants and Catholics) in Northern Ireland, aiming for a fairer society.

Economic Policies during O’Neill's Leadership

  • Context: Decline of the economy in the 1950s with downturns in shipbuilding and linen industries.

  • Strategies Implemented:

    • Utilization of tax breaks and grants to attract new industries and foreign businesses.

    • Achievements: Creation of 65,000 new jobs by 1970.

  • Regional Disparities:

    • Significant investment occurred in the heavily Protestant eastern part of Northern Ireland.

    • The Catholic western regions remained underdeveloped with prevalent poverty.

O’Neill's Outreach to the Catholic Community

  • Initiatives for Improving Relations:

    • First Prime Minister to visit Catholic schools and hospitals.

    • In 1963, ordered flags to be flown at half-mast following the Pope's death.

    • 1965: First meeting with the Republic’s Taoiseach, Seán Lemass, marking the first congregation of the island's leaders since 1920.

  • Public Sentiment:

    • Increased hope among Catholics for reform and reduced discrimination.

    • Public perception that advancements were lagging, creating frustration.

Internal Conflicts within Unionism

  • Growing Resistance by Unionists (1965):

    • Opposition not only from external groups but also from within O’Neill’s own party.

    • Figures like Brian Faulkner voiced concerns that O'Neill's approaches endangered unionist control.

  • Key Opposition Figure:

    • Reverend Ian Paisley from the Free Presbyterian Church criticized O’Neill for perceived betrayal and instigated the ‘O’Neill Must Go’ campaign.

    • This mounting opposition obstructed O'Neill’s reform efforts.

The Catholic Civil Rights Movement

  • Emerging Frustration:

    • As demands for change escalated among Catholics, a new generation of leaders such as Gerry Fitt, John Hume, Austin Currie, and Bernadette Devlin arose.

  • Formation of NICRA (Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association) in 1967:

    • Definition and Purpose: Sought to alleviate discrimination against Catholics.

    • Key Demands of NICRA:

    • Disbanding of the B-Specials (a part-time armed police auxiliary).

    • Cessation of discrimination in housing and employment.

    • Establishment of ‘one man, one vote’ policy in local elections.

    • Ending gerrymandering practices that disadvantaged Catholics.

  • Standalone Position: NICRA did not advocate for a united Ireland, yet faced unionist opposition who dismissed it as a ‘republican plot.’

NICRA’s Strategy and Government Response

  • Peaceful Approaches Inspired by U.S. Civil Rights Movement:

    • Organized marches and boycotts despite government bans citing violence risk.

  • Significant Event (October 1968):

    • A banned march in Derry led to police violence; mass rioting ensued, spotlighted nationally.

The Downfall of O’Neill

  • Increased Government Pressure:

    • The British government prompted unionists to implement housing and voting reforms.

    • By December, following more civil unrest, O’Neill acknowledged Northern Ireland was at a crossroads.

  • Violence Escalation:

    • Civil rights march violence resulted in further unrest leading to O’Neill’s resignation in April 1969.

    • Succeeded by James Chichester-Clark.

The Beginning of the Troubles

  • The Battle of the Bogside (August 1969):

    • Unionist Apprentice Boys march incurred riots in the Catholic Bogside area of Derry.

    • Protesters drove the RUC (Royal Ulster Constabulary) out and declared ‘Free Derry’.

  • Ripple Effect:

    • Violence spread to Belfast with retaliatory attacks on Catholic homes, leading the British government to deploy the army.

    • Initial reception of British soldiers by the Catholic community as protective guardians soon soured.

Escalation of Violence and Terrorism

  • Emergence of Paramilitary Groups:

    • Provisional IRA (the Provos) formed from a split in the IRA in 1969, targeting security forces and civilians alike.

    • Attacks included bombings in Britain and Northern Ireland, often endangering innocents.

    • Political wing: Sinn Féin, led by Gerry Adams from the mid-1980s.

    • Loyalist Violence:

    • Groups like UVF (Ulster Volunteer Force) and UDA (Ulster Defence Association) retaliated against Catholics, aiming to uphold unionist dominance.

New Political Parties Formation

  • Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP):

    • Established in 1970 from civil rights leaders, emphasizing non-violence and social improvements.

  • Democratic Unionist Party (DUP):

    • Founded by Rev. Ian Paisley in 1971 to resist compromise with nationalists and advocate for stringent responses to IRA violence.

The Policy of Internment

  • Internment Introduction (August 1971):

    • Under PM Brian Faulkner, targeted IRA leadership.

    • Definition: Arresting individuals without trial.

  • Consequences:

    • Primarily targeted Catholics; failed to reduce violence and led to an increase in IRA recruitment.

Events Leading to Bloody Sunday

  • NICRA March in Derry (January 30, 1972):

    • Disallowed protest against internment drew a crowd of 15,000.

    • British army response resulted in the Bloody Sunday incident, claiming the lives of 14 civilians and injuring 13 others.

The Aftermath of Bloody Sunday

  • Public Reaction and Investigations:

    • Global protests arose; no shots heard from civilians, no weapons found.

    • A British inquiry in 2010 absolved victims of responsibility.

Analysis of the Causes of the Troubles

  • Long-term Causes:

    • Discrimination against Catholics in jobs, education, housing, and gerrymandering.

  • Short-term Causes:

    • Failed reform attempts by O'Neill, societal reaction to the Civil Rights Movement, and sectarian policing.

The Sunningdale Agreement

  • Suspension of the Stormont Parliament:

    • Following Bloody Sunday, direct rule from London was implemented (March 1972).

    • Appointment of Willie Whitelaw intended to be a temporary measure towards restoration of local governance.

  • Power-Sharing Talks (1973):

    • Aimed for cooperation between nationalists and unionists.

    • Signing of the Agreement in December 1973:

    • Establishment of a power-sharing executive involving Unionist Party, SDLP, and Alliance Party.

    • Formation of the Council of Ireland.

    • Objective: Demonstrate peaceful political methods could facilitate Irish unity.

  • Challenges Faced:

    • Ongoing violence and opposition led to the collapse of the agreement.

Escalation of Violence Post-Sunningdale Agreement

  • Unionist Strikes and Political Turmoil:

    • General strikes organized by unionist groups led to further dysfunction.

    • Direct governance restored by Westminster due to failure.

  • IRA Attacks:

    • Engaged in substantial violent actions, including Birmingham Pub Bombings (November 1974).

  • Loyalist Retaliatory Violence:

    • Notably, the Dublin and Monaghan bombings (May 1974) resulted in civilian casualties.

The Hunger Strikes (Late 1970s)

  • Demands of IRA Prisoners:

    • Requested political status to be recognized as political prisoners.

    • M. Thatcher’s government opposed this stance.

  • Bobby Sands’ Hunger Strike (1981):

    • Gained international sympathy and political leverage.

    • Sands achieved election as an MP during the strike but tragically died after 66 days, leading to further strikers' deaths and elevated attention towards the Troubles.

The Anglo-Irish Agreement (1985)

  • Goals of the Agreement:

    • Sought increased cooperation between the British and Irish governments.

    • Recognized the Republic's role in Northern Ireland governance.

  • Unionist Response:

    • Outrage from unionists led to significant protests.

Ceasefires and Futures of Northern Ireland

  • Engagement of Diplomacy (early 1990s):

    • Secret talks leading to the Downing Street Declaration (December 1993).

  • Good Friday Agreement (1998):

    • Established through arduous negotiations, recognized powers and responsibility sharing among different groups, including Sinn Féin and the political landscape of Northern Ireland.

  • Key Players:

    • Included representatives from Ulster Unionists, SDLP, Sinn Féin, the Irish government, and the British government, albeit with some hardline factions refusing to participate.

Conclusion

  • Insights Gained:

    • The history of O'Neill and the events leading up to the Troubles showcases the complex socio-political landscape of Northern Ireland, highlighting the challenges in bridging divides and addressing systemic inequalities.

  • Ongoing Legacy:

    • The ramifications of these historical events continue to shape contemporary Northern Irish politics and community relations today.