UNIT 1: Biological Bases of Behavior AP EXAM WEIGHTING: 15-25% |
Unit 1 focuses on how the functions of our biological systems influence our physical and mental actions and responses. Knowledge of biological functions and mechanisms, especially how neurons communicate, how the brain functions, and how sleep and sensation impact behavior and mental processes, will help students gain a more comprehensive understanding of psychology throughout the course as well as awareness of how all behaviors and mental processes are based in biological operations. For instance, in Unit 2, students will learn that biological mechanisms are vital to memory, and in Unit 5, they will discover that damage to certain biological structures can be the cause of psychological disorders.
| Learning Objectives & Essential Knowledge BOLD Vocabulary: College Board AP Exam Terms Italicized Vocabulary: Additional Myers 4E Textbook Terms
| TOPIC 1.1 Interaction of Heredity and Environment Skill: Explain the relationship between heredity and environment in shaping behavior and mental processes. | 1.1.A.1 Heredity and the Environment Psychology - The study of the mind and behavior. Nature - The innate characteristics of an individual, presumably genetically determined. Environment - The combination of physical, biological, social, and cultural conditions that influence our behavior and functioning. Heredity - The genetic transmission of traits from parents to their offspring.
| 1.1.A.2 Evolutionary Perspective Evolutionary perspective - The branch of psychology that studies the mental adaptations of humans to a changing environment Natural Selection - Certain behaviors and genes best for survival (Survival of the Fittest) Behaviors such as stranger anxiety, parental love, phobias (spiders, snakes) can all be explained natural selection If a person is outgoing, he or she might make friends an allied and these connections could improve the individual's chances of survival, which increases the person's chances of passing this trait for extroversion down to his or her kids
Behavior Genetics - Focuses on discovering how genes and experiences interact and lead to specific behaviors and mental abilities Mutation - A permanent change in the genetic material of an organism. Genes - segments of DNA that contain instructions to make proteins - building blocks of life Genome - the entirety of that individual’s hereditary information Nurture - is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception, e.g., the product of exposure, life experiences and learning on an individual Eugenics - A theory that seeks to eradicate genetic defects and improve the genetic makeup of populations through selective breeding.
| 1.1.A.3 Research: Twin studies, family studies, adoption studies Identical (monozygotic) Twins - twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms Fraternal (dizygotic) Twins - twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment. Interaction - A relationship between two or more systems, people, or groups that results in mutual influence. Epigenetics - How an individual’s behavior and environment can affect their genes.
| TOPIC 1.2 Overview of the Nervous System Skill: Differentiate among the subsystems of the human nervous system and their functions. | 1.2.A.1 The Central Nervous System Nervous System - The body's electrochemical communications network. Central Nervous System - The brain & spinal cord, which distribute & process messages. Nerves - A structure that connects the CNS with tissues and organs of the body Reflex - Automatic and unlearned responses to stimuli that do not require and is faster than a conscious response. | 1.2.A.2 The Peripheral Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System - A branch of the human nervous system that includes all components except the brain and spinal cord
1.2.A.2.I Autonomic Nervous System Somatic Nervous System - The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements Autonomic Nervous System - A part of the peripheral nervous system that regulates bodily processes such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion
1.2.A.2.II The Somatic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System - branch of the autonomic nervous system that excites body by preparing it for action (increased heartbeat, pupils dilate, lungs increase oxygen, relax bladder, etc) FIGHT OR FLIGHT Parasympathetic Nervous System - branch of the autonomic nervous system that restore the body's energy sources once they have been depleted (pupils constrict, heart beat slows, constrict airways, stomach contract, etc), REST AND DIGEST | TOPIC 1.3 The Neuron and Neural Firing Skill: Explain how the structures and functions of typical neurons in the central nervous system affect behavior and mental processes, explain how the basic process of neural transmission is related to behavior and mental processes, explain how psychoactive drugs affect behavior and mental processes. | 1.3.A.1 Types of Neural Cells in the Brain Neurons - individual nerve cells that make up our entire nervous system Sensory or afferent neurons - neurons that take information from the senses to the brain Motor or efferent neurons - neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body Interneurons - in the brain or spinal cord, neurons that take messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or spinal cord Mirror Neurons - neuron that play role in action understanding, imitation learning, and language processing. Enables use to recreate and embody intentions of others. (this will come later in the class during Unit 2 & 3)
Glial cells - provide nutrition and protection for the neurons Reflex arc - the neural circuit of a reflex | 1.3.A.2 Neurons in the Central and Peripheral Nervous System Dendrites - receive neural messages Cell body (Soma) - contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life Axon - wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body -- passes the messages along Myelin - a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses (lack of it can cause Multiple Sclerosis) Multiple Sclerosis - a disease of the central nervous system, an individual’s myelin sheath is damaged or even destroyed, causes pain and fatigue. Terminal Buttons (Axon Terminals) - branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters Synapse - space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron Reuptake - the reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron. Excitatory neurotransmitters - send signals that stimulate the brain Inhibitory neurotransmitters - send signals to calm the brain down and create balance. Endorphins - Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked with pain control & pleasure. Substance P - regulates pain and mood. Myasthenia gravis (new term 2025) - a disorder in which the body produces antibodies against ACh receptors and leads to muscle weakness. | 1.3.B.1 Process of Neural Transmission Action Potential - An impulse or brief electric charge that travels down the axon. Threshold - The level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse. All or Nothing Principle - A neuron either sends an impulse or it does not. Resting Potential - When a neuron does not have an action potential Depolarization - describes an axon that is firing. Positive ions enter the axon, and cause other positive ions to move into the axon in the form of a neural impulse down the axon. Refractory Period - A resting pause, where neurons pump positively charged sodium ions back outside of the cell. Neurotransmitters - Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons that generate the next neural impulse. | 1.3.B.2 Functions of Neurotransmitters
| 1.3.B.3 Outside of the Nervous System (Endocrine System) Endocrine system - The glands and organs that make hormones and release them directly into the blood so they can travel to tissues and organs all over the body. Hormones - The substances secreted into the bloodstream by the endocrine system, play a large part in our everyday functioning. Adrenaline - secreted when an individual is stimulated by fear or anxiety, gets the body into fight or flight mode. Melatonin - helps initiate sleep and regulate the sleep-wake cycle. Oxytocin - facilitates social affiliation and influences sexual pleasure, reproductive functions, and parental behavior (also known as the love hormone). Ghrelin - stimulates appetite and releases growth hormones Leptin - helps regulate and reduce food intake | 1.3.C.1 Effects on Neurotransmitter Function Psychoactive drugs - drugs that have significant effects on psychological processes Agonists - chemicals that activate the receptors for certain neurotransmitters and make the effects of neurotransmitters stronger Caffeine: agonist for ACH. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): agonists for serotonin. SSRIs increase the amount of serotonin available to the brain, and are commonly prescribed for depression. -- We will cover this in Unit 5
Barbiturates are used as sedatives or hypnotics. (depressants) Marijuana, methamphetamine, cocaine, and ecstasy: agonists of norepinephrine. When these drugs increase the excitatory effects of norepinephrine, they create feelings of euphoria and extreme alertness (stimulants) Benzodiazepines and alcohol: agonists of GABA. Opioids (morphine, oxycodone, heroin, etc.): agonists of endorphins.
Antagonists - chemicals that inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters LSD: antagonist for serotonin (hallucinogens) Some drugs that are dopamine antagonists are used to treat psychosis, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder. (Will cover in Unit 5)
Reuptake inhibitors - are drugs that prevent the axon terminals from engaging in the reuptake of neurotransmitters. | 1.3.C.2 Psychological and Physiological Effects Substance use disorder - the continued use of substances despite substance-related problems, distress, or impairment (Not on Unit 1 test - This comes back in Unit 5) Overdose - taking an excessive amount of a drug and resulting in severe or even lethal effects. | 1.3.C.3 Tolerance, Addiction, and Withdrawals Addiction - a psychological and physical dependence on the use of drugs or other substances Tolerance - when the effects of a drug wears off after a persistent use of that drug, an increase of the dosage is needed to achieve the same effect Withdraw - negative physiological, behavioral, and cognitive effects after cessation of heavy consumption of a substance. | TOPIC 1.4 The Brain Skill: Explain how the structures and functions of the brain apply to behavior and mental processes. | 1.4.A.1 The Brain Stem Brainstem - the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; this part is responsible for automatic survival functions Medulla Oblongata - controls autonomic functions such as heartbeat, blood circulation, breathing, muscle maintenance, and regulation of reflexes like sneezing/coughing Pons (not on AP 2025 exam) - plays a role in sleep and dreaming Thalamus - the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla Reticular Formation - plays an important role in controlling arousal (waking) Hemisphere - the brain has two hemispheres, the left and the right. The left controls the right side of the body and the right controls the left side of the body. Left Hemisphere - specializes in language, speech, handwriting, calculation, sense of time and rhythm Right Hemisphere - specializes in processing involving perception, visualization, and recognition of faces & emotions Corpus Callosum - the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between the | 1.4.A.2 The Reticular Activating System Reticular Formation - plays an important role in controlling arousal (waking) | 1.4.A.3 The Cerebellum Cerebellum - the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory Limbic System - neural system (includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives Hippocampus - vital to our memory system Amygdala - The amygdala is the center of emotion and is responsible for fear and aggressive responses Hypothamalus - The hypothalamus regulates the autonomic nervous system (flight or fight), temperature, hunger, and sex. Pituitary gland - secretes tropic hormones, which regulate the production of other hormones, has resulted in its designation as the “master gland of the endocrine system.” | 1.4.A.4 The Cerebral Cortex Cerebrum - is the largest part of the brain. It is made up of two cerebral hemispheres (the left and the right hemispheres) that are separated by a large groove called the medial longitudinal fissure Cerebral Cortex - the outer layer of tissue of the hemispheres, and smaller subcortical structure Grey matter: receive information and regulate outgoing information White matter: transmits signals to other regions of the brain, spinal cord, and body
Frontal Lobe - portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements The prefrontal cortex is located at the very front of the frontal lobe, and it controls executive functions or a set of abilities that are needed to control cognitive behaviors. These behaviors include attention, inhibition, working memory, problem-solving and planning.
Parietal Lobe - portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position Occipital Lobe - portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields, contains the visual cortex Temporal Lobe - portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas and helps with hearing and meaningful speech, contains the primary auditory cortex Motor Cortex - an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements Somatosensory Cortex - area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations Auditory Cortex -is the part of the temporal lobe that processes auditory information in humans and many other vertebrates. Visual Cortex - is the primary cortical region of the brain that receives, integrates, and processes visual information relayed from the retinas Association Areas – areas in the cerebral cortex involved in higher mental function. Basal ganglia - is a group of nuclei that function as a unit. It plays a role in the goal-directed control of voluntary movemen ts (like picking up a piece of fruit with your hand) and routine behaviors (WE WILL COVER THIS IN UNIT 3) Midbrain (not on 2025 Exam) - small region that connects the hindbrain and forebrain | 1.4.A.5 Split Brain Research Split Brain - a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them Neuroscientists Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga showed that visual information seems to get “stuck” in one hemisphere. Each eye takes in information from an entire scene (visual field) All information about the right side of the visual field is sent from each eye to the left hemisphere and vice versa The information is then combined in an intact brain since the signals cross via the corpus callosum When corpus callosum split the patient sees from one side but will draw from the other
Lesion - Lesions are tissue that is destroyed (disease, Traumatic Brain Injuries, drug abuse, etc).
1.4.A.5.I Areas of the Brain that Affect Language Paul Broca discovered the Broca’s Area - is located in the left hemisphere in the frontal lobe. This area is responsible for speech production and language comprehension. Damage to this area can result in Broca’s aphasia. Carl Wernicke discovered the Wernicke’s area - is located in the back of the temporal lobe near the occipital lobe of the left cerebral hemisphere and is involved in understanding written and spoken language. Damage to this area is called Wernicke’s Aphasia.
Aphasia - an acquired language impairment that results from brain damage typically in the left hemisphere
1.4.A.5.II Research on Cortex Specialization Cortex specialization - a cortical area is specialized for some aspects of perceptual or motor processing Contralateral Hemispheric Organization - the property that the hemispheres of the cerebrum and the thalamus represent mainly the contralateral side of the body. | 1.4.A.6 Brain Plasticity Brain plasticity (neuroplasticity) - reorganization of neural pathways as a result of experience | 1.4.A.7 Research on the Brain: Brain Scans, Case Studies, Surgical Procedures that promote understanding of the brain’s functions Biological psychology - deals with the biological basis of behavior, thoughts, and emotions Biopsychosocial approach - a systematic integration of biological, psychological, and social approaches to the study of mental health and specific mental disorders Levels of analysis - the various ways of observation in psychology. The three LOAs are biological, cognitive, and sociocultural. EEG - an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp CT Scan (not on 2025 exam) - a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure (CAT scan) PET Scan (not on 2025 exam) - a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task MRI Scan (not on 2025 exam) - a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. Show brain anatomy fMRI - a technique for revealing blood flow, and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. These scans show brain function as well as its structure | TOPIC 1.5 Sleep Skill: Explain how the sleep/wake cycle affects behavior and mental processes throughout the day and night. | 1.5.A.1 Consciousness Consciousness - our awareness of ourselves and our environment Nonconscious - includes all the various biological processes that are taking place internally and constantly without you noticing Heart rate regulation, breathing, digestion, biochemical pathways that control organ function, other autonomic responses
Cognitive neuroscience - the study of the structure and function of the brain as it relates to perception, reasoning, remembering, and all other forms of knowing and awareness
1.5.A.2 Circadian Rhythm Sleep - a circadian state characterized by partial or total suspension of consciousness, voluntary muscle inhibition, and relative insensitivity to stimulation. Circadian Rhythm - the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms Suprachiasmatic Nucleus - each of a pair of small nuclei in the hypothalamus of the brain, above the optic chiasma, thought to be concerned with the regulation of physiological circadian rhythms.
1.5.A.3 Stages of Sleep 1.5.A.3.I NREM NREM - non rapid-eye-movement sleep: four sleep stages in which there is an absence of rapid eye movement (REM) and dreams are relatively uncommon Beta waves (not on 2025 test) - awake, alert, anxious - quick, rapid Alpha waves (not on 2025 test) - relaxed, ready for sleep (may see hallucinations just before falling asleep) Theta waves - stages 1 and 2 of NREM sleep Delta waves - deep sleep; stage 3 of NREM, REM -- At some point we shift from being awake to sleep, but we do not perceive that moment EEG patterns - REM sleep EEG readings most closely resemble awake EEG readings. The progression of the stages of sleep starts in REM sleep, then progresses through NREM 1, NREM2, and NREM3 before cycling back to REM sleep.
1.5.A.3.II REM REM Sleep - rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur Dream - a physiologically and psychologically conscious state that occurs during sleep and is often characterized by a rich array of endogenous sensory, motor, emotional, and other experiences REM rebound - the increased occurrence of REM sleep following REM sleep deprivation. 1.5.A.4 Dream Theories Consolidation Theory - Dreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day. Activation Synthesis Theory - During the night our brain stem releases random neural activity, dreams may be a way to make sense of that activity. 1.5.A.5 Sleep Disorders and Disruptions Jet Lag - extreme tiredness and other physical effects felt by a person after a long flight across different time zones. Hallucinations - a false perception of objects or events involving your senses: sight, sound, smell, touch and taste. Hypnagogic Sensations (New on 2025 test) - hallucinations that happen as you're falling asleep (e.g. falling sensation) Insomnia - Inability to fall asleep or stay asleep. Treatment include reduction of caffeine, set sleep schedule, etc Narcolepsy - A disease marked by sudden & irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods. Treatments include medication, changing sleep patterns, and introduction of naps during the day Sleep Apnea - a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. Treatments include respiration machine REM behavior disorder (New on 2025 test) - sleep disorder involving motor activity during REM sleep, which typically includes a physical enactment of dream sequences Somnambulism (New on 2025 test) - sleepwalking, typically occur during the first hours of sleep and involve getting out of bed and walking or more complicated motor activities | TOPIC 1.6 Sensation Skill: Explain how the process of sensation is related to behavior and mental processes |
1.6.A.1 Detection of a Stimulus Sensation - the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment Psychophysics - studies the relationship between the objective physical characteristics of a stimulus (e.g., its measured intensity) and the subjective perception of that stimulus (e.g., its apparent brightness) Sensory receptors - specialized to detect and respond to specific stimuli in the external or internal environment Signal Detection Theory - a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation. Assumes that there is no absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness Absolute Threshold - the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. Example: If you can hear a firetruck before your brother, your absolute threshold is lower for sound than your brothers
1.6.A.2 Detecting Stimulus Change or Diminished Sensitivity Just-Noticeable Difference (Difference Threshold) - the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience this as a just noticeable difference. Example: being able to hear when the volume of a sound gets louder Weber’s Law - creator of Weber’s Law To perceive as different, 2 stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage. Sensory Adaptation - diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. Example: you don’t notice the feeling of your underwear over time
|
1.6.B.1 Transduction in the Retina Transduction - conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret Pupil - the aperture through which light passes on entering the eye, located in front of the lens Cornea: Clear, curved bulge in the front of the eyeball. It protects and covers the eye. Iris: Muscle that expands and contracts to change the size of the opening (pupil) for light. Lens: Transparent structure behind the pupil in the eye that changes shape to focus images on the retina. Retina: Contains sensory receptors that process visual information and send it to the brain. (Transduction occurs here) Fovea: Located in the retina, contains a concentration of cones that provides the clearest vision of all.
1.6.B.4 Color Vision Theories & 1.6.B.4.I Cones Cones - detect fine detail & color vision, near the center of the retina (fovea), daylight or well-lit conditions Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory - the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color Opponent-Process Theory - the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green Hue - the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth Optic Nerve: Carries the impulses from the retina to the brain to interpret them as images. Blindspot - the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there Photoreceptors - visual receptors Feature Detectors - Cells in the visual cortex of the brain that respond selectively to specific features of complex stimuli. Detects: Edges, Angles, Length, & Movement Intensity - the strength or force of a stimulus 1.6.B.2 Lens Accommodation Accommodation - process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina Nearsightedness - good near vision Farsightedness - good distance vision
1.6.B.3 Rods Rods - detect black, white & gray, peripheral retina, twilight or low light 1.6.B.4.II Afterimages and Ganglion Cells Afterimages - the images that remain after a stimulus ends or is removed, related to opponent-process theory Bipolar Cells - transmit signals from the photoreceptors to the ganglion cells Ganglion Cells - are neurons that relay information from the retina to the brain via the optic nerve Photoreceptors → Bipolar cells → Ganglion cells
1.6.B.4.III Color Vision Deficiencies Dichromatism - partial color blindness in which the eye contains only two types of cone photopigment instead of the typical three (red-green blindness being the most common) Monochromatism - a partial color blindness in which the eye contains only one type of cone photopigment instead of the typical three
1.6.B.5 Brain Damage Resulting in Visual Disorders Prosopagnosia - a disease where the ability to perceive and recognize faces is impaired, whereas the ability to recognize other objects may be relatively unaffected Blindsight - a disease where discrimination of flicker, wavelength, and orientation are present but not accompanied by conscious awareness | 1.6.C.1 Detecting Movement of Air Middle Ear - the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window Cochlea - a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses through electrodes threaded into the cochlea Inner Ear - the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
1.6.C.2 Theories of Pitch Detection Place Theory - in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated Volley Theory - when high-frequency sounds are experienced too frequently for a single neuron to adequately process and fire for each sound event, the organs of the ear combine the multiple stimuli into a "volley" in order to process the sounds Frequency Theory - in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
1.6.C.3 Determining Location of Sound Sound Localization - the ability of an organism to discover the location of something producing sound waves based on things like intensity and timing Wavelengths - the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next Frequency - Dimension of frequency determined by wavelength of sound Pitch - The dimension of frequency determined by the wavelength of sound Amplitude - the intensity or amount of energy of a wave, reflected in the height of the wave; the amplitude of a sound wave determines a sound's loudness
1.6.C.4 Hearing Difficulties Conduction Deafness - hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea Sensorineural Deafness - hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness Cochlear Implant - a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve | 1.6.D Explain how the structures and functions of the chemical sensory systems relate to behavior and mental processes.
1.6.D.1 Detection and Transduction in the Nose Olfactory System - the sense of smell. Odors first interact with receptor proteins associated with hairs in the nose. The hairs convey information to the brain's olfactory bulbs, located on the underside of the brain. Certain smells can invoke memory Pheromones - Chemical signals released by organisms to communicate with other members of their species
1.6.D.2 Types of Taste Umami - "savory" or "meaty"—the kind of taste we experience when we eat things like broth, gravies, soups, and soy sauce Oleogustus - A proposed basic taste sensation triggered by fatty acids
1.6.D.3 Structures That Transduce Taste & Types of Tasters Gustation - the mouth's ability to tell the difference between sweet, sour, bitter, and salty properties Taste receptors - tiny bumps on the tongue. They contain microscopic hairs called microvilli that send messages to the brain about taste. They detect sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami (savory) Supertasters - equipped with taste receptors that are not found in nontasters. More sensitive to certain bitter and sweet substances. Those who experience taste with far greater intensity than most others Medium tasters - those who have an average ability to sense different flavors Nontasters - people who genetically are unable to taste, or someone who has less taste perception than the average person
1.6.D.3 Interaction and Coordination of Chemical Senses Thalamus - receives and sorts all sensory input to other parts of the brain 1.6.E Explain how the structures and functions of the touch sensory system relate to behavior and mental processes. 1.6.E.1 Structures That Process Touch in the Skin & Brain | 1.6.F Explain how the structures and functions of the pain sensory system relate to behavior and mental processes. 1.6.F.1 Explain the Processes and Complexities of Pain Gate-Control Theory - the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain Phantom limb sensation - the feeling that an amputated limb is still present 1.6.G Explain how the structures and functions that maintain balance (vestibular) and body movement (kinesthetic) relate to behavior and mental processes. 1.6.G.1 Vestibular Sense Vestibular Sense - the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance Semicircular canals - a set of three looped tubular channels in the inner ear that detect movements of the head and provide the sense of dynamic equilibrium that is essential for maintaining balance 1.6.G.2 Kinesthesis Kinesthesia - the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts |
Learning Objectives & Essential Knowledge |