Period 8 Notes (NOT Heimler)
Post-World War II America
Overview
After World War II, the United States emerged as a global superpower, experiencing both cultural changes and significant economic growth. The 1950s were characterized by conformity, increased consumerism, and the baby boom. Tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union escalated into the Cold War, marked by events like the arms race and the Korean War, which in turn fueled the Second Red Scare.
African American activists fought for civil rights through boycotts and protests, gaining momentum due to the violent opposition they faced. This activism led to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The domino theory influenced America's involvement in the Vietnam War, which became increasingly unpopular, especially after the introduction of the draft and the release of the Pentagon Papers.
The Civil Rights Movement ignited other social reforms, including women's rights, Latino rights, and environmental protection. Key figures like Rachel Carson supported environmental protection.
Post-War American Society
GI Bill
Also known as the Serviceman's Readjustment Act, it provided opportunities for veterans, including loans for college, vocational training, and home purchases.
Suburban Growth
The 1950's saw the growth of American suburbs due to increased college attendance, higher incomes, and affordable housing options like Levittown, which made home building cheap and efficient. The baby boom also contributed to suburban expansion as families sought larger homes and yards.
Consumerism
Increased access to electric household appliances like televisions drove consumerism. Advertisers used televised commercials and roadside billboards to market products. Decreased car prices allowed middle-class families to own multiple vehicles, often purchased using new credit cards.
Sunbelt Region
The Sunbelt region experienced growth due to warmer climates, lower taxes, and economic opportunities, including jobs in the defense industry, which expanded during the Cold War. The invention of air conditioning made these warmer states more appealing.
Social Rebellion
Teenagers rebelled against conformity by embracing rock and roll music (e.g., Elvis Presley) and challenging social norms. Conservatives responded with the rise of televangelists like Jerry Falwell and Billy Graham. The Beatniks criticized consumerism and conformity, publishing important works of literature, including The Affluent Society by John Kenneth Galbraith, The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger, and On the Road by Jack Kerouac.
Truman Administration
Policies
Harry Truman assumed the presidency in 1945 after FDR's death. In 1948, he issued Executive Order 9981, which abolished segregation in the military, though this faced resistance, especially in the Jim Crow South. Southern politicians opposed desegregation efforts.
Fair Deal
Truman's domestic policy, the Fair Deal, aimed to continue FDR's New Deal agenda, supporting government intervention for a more just society. Objectives included national health insurance, civil rights legislation, public housing, and federal support for education.
22nd Amendment
Passed in 1951, this limited the president to two terms in office, following FDR's four terms.
Taft-Hartley Act
Also known as the Labor Management Relations Act, it was passed over Truman's veto and restricted the power of labor unions.
The Cold War Begins
Containment Policy
George Kennan, known as the father of containment, advised the U.S. to contain Soviet expansion. His Long Telegram argued that the Soviet Union was expansionist, necessitating American action.
Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan
The Truman Doctrine provided economic aid to Greece and Turkey to resist communism, while the Marshall Plan was an economic recovery plan for Western Europe. Both aimed to prevent the spread of communism, but the Marshall Plan focused solely on economic aid to Western European countries, while the Truman Doctrine offered military aid to Greece and Turkey.
Berlin Blockade
The Soviet Union blocked land and water access to West Berlin, prompting the Allies to airlift supplies to the city. The goal was to counter the blockade without initiating war.
NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was founded in 1949 for collective security, protecting member nations through political and military means.
The Second Red Scare
Fears and Civil Rights Violations
Similar to the Red Scare after World War I, the Second Red Scare saw civil rights violations due to fears of communism. The first Red Scare focused on foreign threats and labor unions, while the second emphasized domestic threats and the infiltration of communists into the U.S. government. The fear was intensified by nuclear technology.
Joseph McCarthy and McCarthyism
Senator Joseph McCarthy led witch hunts, claiming communist spies were in the U.S. government. Groups like the House Un-American Activities Committee investigated suspicious citizens, groups, and government employees. The Hollywood Ten were blacklisted for refusing to answer questions about communist ties.
Alger Hiss and the Rosenbergs
Alger Hiss was convicted of perjury after being accused of spying for the Soviet government. Richard Nixon led the investigation against Hiss. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed in 1951 for passing atomic secrets to the Soviet Union.
End of Hysteria
The televised Army-McCarthy hearings exposed McCarthy's bullying tactics, leading to his downfall and censure by the Senate.
The Korean War
US Intervention
The U.S. entered the Korean War in 1950 after North Korea invaded South Korea, intervening as part of a UN force. Congress never formally declared war. It was a proxy war of the Cold War, with the U.S. and Western nations supporting South Korea, while communist China and the Soviet Union supported North Korea.
Significance and Casualties
The Korean War demonstrated America's commitment to global security and defending democracy. Of the 1,700,000 Americans who served, over 30,000 died, 90,000 were injured, and 8,000 went missing.
End of the War
The war ended with a ceasefire on July 27, 1953. The Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) was established at the 38th Parallel. It is often referred to as the forgotten war, overshadowed by World War II and the Vietnam War.
Eisenhower Administration
Policies
Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected in 1952, becoming the first Republican president in twenty years.
Interstate Highway Act
The Interstate Highway Act of 1956 improved infrastructure, supported economic development, relieved congestion, and enhanced road safety. A major underlying goal was to quickly evacuate cities in case of a nuclear attack.
Dulles Diplomacy
Secretary of State John Foster Dulles implemented brinkmanship (willingness to go to the brink of nuclear war) and massive retaliation (promising full nuclear retaliation if the Soviets became too aggressive).
Covert Foreign Policy
Eisenhower increased covert foreign policy, with the CIA leading coups in Iran and Guatemala.
Eisenhower Doctrine
Introduced in 1957, it provided economic and military aid to Middle Eastern countries resisting communist aggression, similar to the Truman Doctrine.
U-2 Incident
In 1962, a U.S. U-2 plane was shot down over Soviet territory, revealing surveillance flights and heightening tensions, leading to the cancellation of the Paris summit.
Farewell Address
Eisenhower warned against the military-industrial complex, fearing an unhealthy relationship between the military and private defense industries, and cautioned against heavy deficit spending.
Civil Rights Movement (1950s)
Key Figures
In 1947, Jackie Robinson became the first African American to play Major League Baseball.
Brown v. Board of Education
In 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that the separate but equal policy was unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson, stating that separate facilities are inherently unequal.
Resistance to Integration
Following the Brown decision, black students attempting to attend all-white schools faced resistance, as seen with the Little Rock Nine.
Montgomery Bus Boycott
The Montgomery Bus Boycott began on December 1, 1955, when Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat. Led by Martin Luther King Jr., the year-long boycott led to the desegregation of the city's buses.
Civil Rights Groups
The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), founded by Martin Luther King Jr., and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) were critical in organizing the movement. Both organizations used peaceful tactics such as sit-ins and marches.
Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960
These acts outlawed voter discrimination and disenfranchisement, allowing the government to punish violators.
Kennedy Administration
Election of 1960
Democrat John F. Kennedy defeated Republican Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election. The first televised debates played a role in Kennedy's victory.
New Frontier
Kennedy's New Frontier included economic improvement, education reform, health care expansion, civil rights protection, the space program, the Peace Corps, and the Alliance for Progress.
Flexible Response
Kennedy introduced flexible response, focusing on diplomacy and economic tactics in addition to military means, differing from Eisenhower's brinkmanship.
Bay of Pigs Incident
In 1961, the U.S. supported Cuban exiles in an attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro's government, but the failed attempt made America look weak.
Cuban Missile Crisis
In October 1962, the U.S. discovered Soviet missiles in Cuba, leading to a standoff. The Soviets removed missiles from Cuba, and the U.S. agreed to remove missiles from Turkey. A hotline between the U.S. and the Soviet Union was established for communication.
Visit to Berlin
On June 26, 1963, Kennedy visited the Berlin Wall to express solidarity with West Berliners.
Assassination
On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. The Warren Commission concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald was the lone gunman.
Johnson Administration
Great Society
Lyndon B. Johnson assumed the presidency after Kennedy's death and initiated the Great Society to wage a war on poverty. Programs included Medicare and Medicaid, Project Head Start, the Office of Economic Opportunity, the Job Corps, food stamps, and the creation of the Department of Transportation and the Department of Housing and Urban Development.
Immigration Act of 1965
This act eliminated the restrictive national origin quotas from the 1920s.
Civil Rights Movement Momentum
While Supreme Court decisions and laws ended de jure segregation, de facto segregation persisted. In 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested in Birmingham, Alabama, for protesting segregation. He wrote Letters from a Birmingham Jail, arguing that individuals should break unjust laws and willingly accept the penalty to arouse the conscience of the community.
Civil Rights Protests
Important civil rights protests from the 1960s included:
- Freedom Riders: White and black protesters rode throughout the South to fight segregation on interstate buses.
- March on Washington: On August 28, 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. gave his