Cell Biology and Energy Transformation

Plasma Membrane:
- Acts as a barrier that separates the interior of the cell from the external environment.
- Selectively permeable, allowing certain substances to pass while blocking others.
Lysosomes:
- Organelles that contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris.
- Involved in processes like autophagy and apoptosis.
Chloroplast:
- Site of photosynthesis in plant cells.
- Contains chlorophyll, which captures light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
Nucleoid:
- Region in prokaryotic cells where the genetic material (DNA) is located.
- Not surrounded by a membrane.
Cytosol (Cytoplasm):
- Fluid component of the cytoplasm where organelles are suspended.
- It's the site of many metabolic reactions.
Mitochondria:
- Known as the powerhouse of the cell.
- Responsible for energy production through cellular respiration.

Cells with Cell Walls:
- Found in plant cells, fungi, bacteria, and some archaea.
- Composition:
- Plant cell walls: Primarily composed of cellulose.
- Fungi: Chitin.
- Bacteria: Peptidoglycan.

Types of Junctions:
- Plant Cells:
- Plasmodesmata: Channels between plant cell walls that facilitate communication and transport.
- Animal Cells:
- Tight Junctions: Seal neighboring cells together to prevent leakage.
- Desmosomes: Anchoring junctions that provide mechanical stability.
- Gap Junctions: Allow for intercellular communication through channels.

Chloroplasts:
- Convert solar energy into chemical energy via photosynthesis.
Mitochondria:
- Convert biochemical energy from nutrients into ATP through cellular respiration.

Function:
- Regulates the passage of substances into and out of the cell.
Membrane Structure:
- Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.

Passive Transport:
- Movement of molecules across the membrane without energy expenditure.
- Includes diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
Active Transport:
- Movement against the concentration gradient, requiring energy (ATP).
- Includes primary and secondary active transport.

Isotonic Solution:
- Solute concentration equal inside and outside of the cell; no net movement.
Hypertonic Solution:
- Higher solute concentration outside the cell; cells lose water and shrivel (Plasmolysis in plant cells, crenation in animal cells).
Hypotonic Solution:
- Lower solute concentration outside the cell; cells gain water and swell (Turgor pressure in plant cells, lysis in animal cells).

Role of Proteins:
- Integral and peripheral proteins are involved in transport, signaling, and structural support.
Types of Integral Proteins:
- Channels, transporters, receptors, and enzymes.

Tonicity: Attributes of a solution in relation to its ability to influence cell volume.

Laws of Thermodynamics:
- 1st Law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.
- 2nd Law: In any energy transfer, the total entropy of a system and its surroundings always increases.
Entropy:
- Measure of disorder or randomness in a system.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate):
- Consists of adenine, ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups.
- Energy is released upon hydrolysis to ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate).
- Coupling of exergonic (energy-releasing) and endergonic (energy-consuming) reactions is crucial for cellular processes.

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity:
- Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, and presence of inhibitors.

Coenzymes:
- Organic non-protein molecules that assist enzymes during catalysis (e.g., NAD, FAD).
Types of Inhibition:
- Competitive: Inhibitor competes with the substrate for the active site.
- Non-competitive: Inhibitor binds to a different part of the enzyme, altering its activity.

Enzymes are typically named based on the substrate they act on and the type of reaction they catalyze, often ending in “-ase.”

Production of CO2 and H2O:
- Occurs during the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain.
Chemical Equation for Respiration:
$C6H{12}O6 + 6O2 ightarrow 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP$
Oxidation and Reduction:
- Glucose (C6H12O6) is oxidized to CO2; O2 is reduced to H2O.

Substrate-Level Phosphorylation:
- Occurs in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.
Oxidative Phosphorylation:
- Takes place in the electron transport chain and is coupled with chemiosmosis.

Process of Fermentation:
- Anaerobic pathway for energy production in the absence of oxygen.
- Inputs: Glucose.
- Outputs: Lactic acid (in animals) or ethanol and CO2 (in yeast).
- Advantages: Rapid ATP production.
- Disadvantages: Less energy per mole of glucose compared to aerobic respiration.
Aerobic vs Anaerobic:
- Aerobic: Requires oxygen; produces more ATP.
- Anaerobic: Does not require oxygen; produces less ATP.

Light reaction of photosynthesis (1st stage)
- Inputs & Outputs
- Location
- Light wavelengths absorbed the most? the least?
Calvin cycle of photosynthesis (2nd stage)
- Inputs & Outputs
- Stages (there are 3 - CO₂ fixation, CO₂ reduction and regeneration of RuBP)
- Role of RuBP in C3 plants
- Role of G3P
Equation for photosynthesis
Solar energy travels as what
What energy molecule is needed
What organisms can and cannot undergo photosynthesis
What is the 2% of light that photosynthesizers can use called

Be able to match organelles or structures with their functions (plants, animals and prokaryotic cells)
ID organelles that belong to plants vs animals
ID type of cellular transport mechanisms (picture)
ID plasma membrane components (picture)
Stages of cellular respiration with their description
How many ATP produced during each stage
Mitochondria structures (picture)
Events of photosynthesis: 1st stage or 2nd stage?