In-Depth Notes on Motivation, Emotion, and Stress

Theories of Motivation

• Basic Theories of Motivation:

  • Instinct/Evolutionary Theory:
  • Motivation originates from instinctual behavior that has evolved over time.
  • Drives and Incentives:
  • Drives create an internal state of tension that motivates behavior.
  • Incentives are external factors that motivate behavior.
  • Homeostasis:
  • The body’s tendency to maintain a balanced internal state.

• Arousal Theory:

  • People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal (Yerkes-Dodson Law).
  • The inverted U shape suggests that too little or too much arousal can hinder performance.

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

  • A pyramid of human needs, from basic physiological needs at the base to self-actualization at the top.

• Self-Determination Theory:

  • Emphasizes motivation driven by intrinsic (internal) rewards rather than extrinsic (external) rewards.

• Lewin’s Motivational Conflict Theory:

  • Approach-Approach Conflict:
  • Choosing between two desirable options.
  • Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict:
  • Choosing between two undesirable options.
  • Approach-Avoidance Conflict:
  • One option has both positive and negative aspects.
  • Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict:
  • Multiple choices with positive and negative aspects.

• Sensation Seeking Theory:

  • Suggests individuals have varying levels of need for stimulation and excitement.

• Opponent-Process Theory:

  • Emotions often trigger the opposite emotion as a response.

Body Chemistry and Hunger

• Biological Mechanisms of Hunger:

  • Glucose:
  • Blood sugar levels that affect hunger.
  • Lateral and Ventromedial Hypothalamus:
  • Areas of the brain that regulate hunger.
  • Major Appetite Hormones:
  • Leptin:
    • Hormone that decreases appetite.
  • Ghrelin:
    • Hormone that increases appetite.
  • Set Point Theory:
  • The body has a preferred weight range it attempts to maintain.
  • Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR):
  • The rate of energy expenditure at rest.

• Psychology of Hunger:

  • Influences include cultural factors, memory, and social settings.

• Eating Disorders:

  • Anorexia Nervosa:
  • Characterized by self-starvation and excessive weight loss.
  • Bulimia Nervosa:
  • Binge eating followed by purging.

• Obesity:

  • Prevalence: Growing concern globally.
  • Social Effects: Stigmatization and discrimination present.
  • Fat Cells:
  • Once formed, fat cells do not disappear; they only decrease in size during weight loss.

Sex and Sexuality

• Masters and Johnson:

  • Identified the stages of human sexual response: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

• Roles of Estrogen and Testosterone:

  • Essential hormones influencing sexual behavior and characteristics in both genders.

• Similarities/Differences in Male and Female Sexuality:

  • Both genders experience sexual arousal differently due to psychological and biological factors.

• Adolescent Sexuality:

  • Key concerns include prevention of pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

• Sexual Orientation:

  • Variations in sexual orientation and ongoing studies into the biological basis for sexual preferences.

The Need to Belong

• Evolutionary Perspective:
  • Humans are social creatures and belonging needs are fundamental to survival.
  • Ostracism:
  • Social exclusion that can lead to emotional distress.

Major Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange Theory:

  • Emotions result from physiological responses to events.

• Cannon-Bard Theory:

  • Emotion and physiological responses occur simultaneously but independently.

• Schachter Two-Factor Theory:

  • Emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive label.

Causes and Expressions of Emotion

• LeDoux’s Findings:

  • Identified 'fast' and 'slow' pathways for processing fear responses in the brain.

• Paul Ekman and Universal Emotional Expression:

  • Emotions are universally expressed across cultures, though display rules vary.

Causes of Fear

• Fear Responses:
  • Can be learned through conditioning or innate (biological preparedness).
  • The Amygdala plays a crucial role in processing fear.

Biology and Control of Anger

• Causes of Anger:
  • Learn how to manage anger through various strategies.

Happiness and Well-Being

• Factors Correlated with Happiness:
  • Pursuit of meaningful life activities vs. external rewards.
• Law of Diminishing Returns:
  • Over time, increased satisfaction diminishes.
• Adaptation-Level Phenomenon:
  • Individuals adapt to new levels of happiness and require more stimulation to achieve the same satisfaction.
• Relative Deprivation:
  • Feeling worse when comparing oneself to others in better situations.

Understanding Stress

• Types of Stressors:

  • Catastrophic events, major life changes, and daily hassle.

• Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS):

  • Stages of GAS:
  • Alarm Stage: Immediate reaction.
  • Resistance Stage: Body tries to cope with stressor.
  • Exhaustion Stage: Depleted resources lead to decreased stress resistance.

• Broaden and Build Theory:

  • Positive emotions can broaden thought processes and encourage creativity and connection with others.

• Tend and Befriend Responses:

  • Social support systems, especially in women, play vital roles during stressful times.

• Emotion-Focused Coping Strategies:

  • Techniques such as meditation and relaxation can lower stress levels.

Stress Types

• Eustress vs. Distress:
  • Eustress is positive and motivating; distress is harmful and debilitating.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

• Impact on Future Health:
  • ACEs can lead to long-term emotional and physical health issues.

Stress Impact on Health

• Type A vs. Type B Personality:
  • Type A: Competitive, high-stress, more prone to health issues.
  • Type B: Relaxed, easier going, typically healthier.

Psychoneuroimmunology

• Study of how the brain, behavior, and immune system interact.
  • Immune responses influenced by psychological and physiological factors.

Other Relevant Topics (From Unit 5)

• Topics such as cognition and memory discussed briefly, elaborating on their connections to motivation and emotion.