Week 7 Reading Notes: 5 Cooper 2004 Babylonian Beginnings

Author: Jerrold S. Cooper
Opening Quote:
- "Because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat (the message), The lord of Kulaba patted some clay and put words on it, like a tablet - Until then, there had been no putting words on clay."
- Source: Sumerian epic poem Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta.
Recent advancements in the understanding of early writing systems, particularly in Babylonia and its precursors.

Earlier belief (mid-1960s): A diffusionist model where writing was believed to be invented in Babylonia around 3000 BC and later influenced Egypt, and eventually China.
Current understanding:
- Decipherment of Maya script shows independent invention of writing at least twice (Old World and New).
- Greater evidence from Chinese prehistory indicates local developments in writing systems.
- Earlier examples of writing have been found that may pre-date Babylonian cuneiform.
General consensus among scholars:
- Writing systems like Sumerian, Egyptian, Chinese, and Mesoamerican emerged independently in response to local needs without external stimulus.

Local needs prompting writing invention:
- Increasing social and political complexity, primarily administrative.
- Writing needed to track income, disbursements, and transfers within large organizations (palace, temple, community).
Evidence from ancient documents:
- In Babylonia, early writing used primarily for administrative purposes, with religious or decorative uses appearing much later.
- Unlike Babylonia, early texts from Egypt, China, and Mesoamerica often served political, religious, or elite display purposes.
Materials used for writing:
- Babylonia: Clay - durable, preserves early administrative records.
- Egypt: Papyrus (perishable), thus fewer administrative records have survived.
- China: Silk and wood strips (also perishable).
- Mesoamerica: Bark paper and palm leaves (perishable).
Signs of early administrative record-keeping in each culture imply that more ephemeral documents were likely produced but have not survived.

Timeframe: Late Uruk period (approximately 3000 BC) marked by significant population growth and the emergence of the first true city, Uruk.
Evidence of hierarchical sociopolitical structures:
- Ability to mobilize labor and resources seen in monumental structures at Uruk.
Art from this period depicts leaders and administrative activity:
- Visual representations of rulers engaged in various activities, including overseeing torture, battle, and ritual activities.
Archaeological significance: Various expansion sites of Uruk domination across adjacent regions, indicating a strong Southern Mesopotamian influence.

Emergence of various devices for accounting and enhancing accountability:
- Clay tokens: used for item counting – these had been around for centuries.
- Cylinder seals: used to seal and mark containers.
- Use of clay bullae containing tokens – sealed and impressed with the images of the contents.
- Numerical signs on clay tablets beginning in the Late Uruk period, indicating early attempts at complex numerical record-keeping.
Notable development: "Numerico-ideographic tablets" only found at Uruk and Susiana, representing a crucial step transitioning from numerical to proto-cuneiform writing.
Contextual relevance: Archaeological findings affirm the Babylonian influence was notably stronger and lasted longer in Susiana compared to Northern Mesopotamia and Syria.

The transition from proto-cuneiform to full cuneiform writing:
- Uruk IV to Uruk III phases.
- Emergence of intricate accounting systems in the Jemdet Nasr period, showcasing the evolution of the writing system and accounting methods.
Proliferation of signs and complexities in administrative texts 'toward the end of Uruk IV, indicating advanced record-keeping practices.
Characteristics of proto-cuneiform: heavily derived from numerical notations and earlier forms of pictorial representation, transitioning to sign use for more abstract concepts.

Distinction between writing systems:
- Early writing systems not fully developed and versatile; they functioned primarily for administrative accounts, and their evolution took centuries.
The role of grammar and syntax in early writing systems:
- Archaic tablets display limited versatility, mostly serving administrative ends, with grammatical structures emerging progressively.
Gradual increase in grammatical expressions noted in Sumerian and Egyptian languages through historical phases.
- Early systems did not mimic spoken language but extended it into areas where spoken language could not suffice. This led to developments in record-keeping that were superior to oral methods.

Highlights notable parallels and differences between various early writing systems including:
- Cuneiform (Sumerians), Egyptian, Chinese, Mesoamerican scripts.
The role of phonetic elements:
- Variations noted in each system's use of phonetic versus semantic elements, including rebus writing, logograms, and flexibility in sign usage.

The complexity and prestige associated with writing systems:
- Discusses how traditional writing systems persisted due to ideological reasons rather than purely economic efficiency.
The enduring influence of cultural factors on the development of writing systems, despite advancements in technology.

Recaps the central premise that writing arose from the socio-economic pressures faced by increasingly complex societies.
Advocates for a pluralistic understanding of writing and its function in different civilizations, urging flexibility in definitions and approaches in comparative studies.