Avoidance & Punishment

The lecture on Avoidance and Punishment covers several key concepts:

Avoidance

• Avoidance Learning: This involves learning to prevent an aversive event before it occurs. It can be either active (taking action to avoid the event) or passive (refraining from an action to avoid the event)

• Theories of Avoidance:

  • Two-Factor Theory: This theory combines classical and operant conditioning. It suggests that avoidance is driven by an escape from fear rather than the prevention of the aversive event

  • Cognitive Theory of Avoidance: This theory posits that avoidance behavior is based on the expectation that a response will prevent an aversive stimulus, rather than on fear

Punishment

• Positive Punishment: Involves adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, scolding a child for misbehavior

• Negative Punishment: Involves removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, taking away a child's toy for misbehavior

• Avoidance Account of Punishment: Punishment does not directly weaken a behavior but involves avoidance learning, where the avoidance response consists of any behavior other than the behavior being punished. This can lead to behaviors such as becoming a better liar or learning where speed cameras are located

Key Points

• Aversive Control: Positive punishment or aversive events motivate escape behaviors, which are then strengthened via negative reinforcement

• Expectations and Learning: Control over an aversive stimulus allows subjects to form expectations about their ability to influence outcomes, aligning with cognitive theories that emphasize perceived control in learning

Week 13: Avoidance and Punishment

Avoidance

Q: What is the difference between Escape behaviour and avoidance behaviour?

A: Escape behaviour involves getting away from an aversive stimulus that is in progress, while avoidance behaviour involves stay/getting away from an anticipated aversive stimulus

Q: How is avoidance often learned and how is it measured?

A: Avoidance behaviour is learned by acquiring associations between some cue and an aversive stimulus and then acquiring a response that mitigates the aversive stimulus. To measure avoidance learning, we measure the time between the presentation of the cue and the performance of the response with shorter times signifying greater learning

Q: What is the progress of learned hopelessness?

A: A learner experiences a bad event in which there is no way to control/avoid the outcome. This inability to avoid the negative outcome creates a perceived lack of control which fuels generalized helpless behaviour.

Q: Describe active and passive avoidance

A: Active avoidance involves actively making a response to avoid an aversive event, while passive avoidance involves not putting yourself in a situation where you could encounter the aversive stimulus

Q: Why are avoidance behaviours so difficult to extinguish?

A: Because the expected result of the avoidance behaviour is to not experience the aversive stimulus, if you try to extinguish the avoidance behaviour by removing the aversive stimulus the result is still the same. Thus, no extinction occurs

Theories of Avoidance

Q: Describe Mowrer’s Two Factor Theory of Avoidance

A: Avoidance learning requires two factors: 1) the learner must learn an association between and aversive stimulus and a cue, thus, causing the learner to fear the cue, 2) the learner must perform a behaviour that becomes negatively reinforced through the avoidance of the aversive stimulus

Q: What are two findings that support the Two Factor Theory?

A: The theory predicts that avoidance behaviour will be stronger if the association between aversive stimulus and the cue is stronger. Thus, factors that can weaken the association between the aversive stimulus and cue, such as adding a delay, should also weaken the avoidance behaviour. This predict was corroborated by Kamin’s (1957) which found that introducing a delay between the cue and aversive stimulus weakened avoidance behaviour. Additionally, another study found that terminating the cue immediately after the avoidance behaviour is performed strengthened avoidance behaviour

Q: What are some limitations of the Two Factor Theory?

A: The Two factor theory suggest that fear of the aversive stimulus, which is triggered by the cue, motivates avoidance behaviours, however, once the avoidance behaviour is well-learned learners no longer exhibit apparent fear. Additionally, avoidance learning can be learned without a cue, such as in Herrnstein & Hineline (1966) and the Sidman Free-Operant Avoidance experiment.

Q: In response to the above limitations, how did supporters of the Two factor theory respond? Is the response supported by evidence?

A: By devising the alternation of behaviour (yo-yo): Successful avoidance puts the CS into extinction, in which fear drops, which leads to weaken avoidance behaviours and leads to more punishment, which reinforces the avoidance behaviours again. This account is not well-supported by evidence

Q: Describe the One Factor Theory of avoidance learning

A: A behaviour that avoids an aversive stimulus is negatively reinforced (essentially the two factor theory without the first factor.

Q: What is the major limitation of the one factor model?

A: Having a cue can actually improve avoidance learning

Q: Describe the cognitive theory of avoidance learning

A: Avoidance learning is determined by expectations rather than fear. Two expectations are important: 1) the expectation that the aversive stimulus will be presented after the cue, and 2) the expectation that performing a response will lead to avoiding the aversive stimulus.

Punishment

Q: Describe the two different kinds of negative punishment

A: Timeout (the temporary removal of access to positive reinforcement) and Response Cost (Removal of a reinforcer for the problem behaviour)

Q: What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic punishment?

A: Intrinsic punishment is when the behaviour itself can be aversive (e.g. Hurting your back from lift heavy objects) while extrinsic punishment is when the aversive response comes from something other than the behaviour (e.g. being yelled at for lifting heavy objects without proper support/form)

Q: List the problems potential problems with using punishment

Q: What are the benefits of using punishment

A: While rewards can help establish cooperation, without sanctions for inappropriate behaviour, cooperation may not be sustained

Q: What can be done to ensure that punishment is effective

Accounts/Theories of Punishment

Q: Describe the Conditioned Suppression Account of punishment

A: Punishment doesn’t actually weaken a behaviour, but results in an emotional response that suppresses the performance of the behaviour

Q: Describe the Avoidance Account of punishment

A: Punishment actually involves avoidance learning, where the avoidance response consists of any behaviour other than the one being punished

STUDY TIPS:

→      Build a conceptual framework of the content/materials by structuring your summary notes around key terms and concepts (this can be in any format you find best for you: e.g. table, figures, notebook etc).

→      Specifically, start with key terms/concepts and add examples, theories, and more detailed info. This strategy is known as ‘chunking’ in cognitive psychology and helps manage the limited capacity of working memory, making complex information (such as this unit) easier to remember.

Sequence of an Action Potential

1. Depolarization (Role of Na+):

What Happens: Voltage-gated sodium channels in the neuron's membrane open, allowing Na+ ions, which are initially at higher concentrations outside the neuron, to rush into the cell, causing the membrane potential to become more positive.

Effect on Membrane Potential: The influx of Na+ ions, which are positively charged, decreases the internal negativity of the neuron (makes the inside less negative). This is called depolarization, and it is what initiates the action potential.

Result: The neuron's interior becomes temporarily more positive, reaching a threshold that triggers the action potential, which is essential for nerve signal transmission.

2.   Action Potential:

The depolarization reaches a threshold, triggering an action potential. This is the point at which the neuron rapidly becomes even more positive, leading to the peak of the action potential.

What Happens: The depolarization reaches a threshold, triggering an action potential. Voltage-gated sodium channels continue to open, causing rapid entry of Na+ ions and making the neuron even more positive.

 Effect on Membrane Potential: The inside of the neuron becomes significantly more positive compared to the outside, leading to the peak of the action potential.

Result: The action potential is generated, and this electrical impulse travels down the axon to propagate the signal to the next cell in the neural pathway.

3. Repolarization (Role of K+):

What Happens: After the peak of the action potential, potassium channels open, and K+ ions flow out of the neuron, bringing the membrane potential back toward its resting negative value.

Effect on Membrane Potential: The exit of positively charged K+ ions helps restore the negative charge inside the cell. This movement back toward a negative internal environment is known as repolarization.

Result: The neuron's membrane potential returns toward its resting state. This phase may be followed by a brief period where the inside becomes even more negative than the normal resting potential, a phase known as hyperpolarization, before stabilizing at the resting level.

4. Refractory Period:

Following repolarization, there is a refractory period where the neuron temporarily becomes hyperpolarized (slightly more negative than the resting potential) and cannot fire another action potential. This phase ensures unidirectional propagation of the action potential along the axon and prevents immediate reactivation.

What Happens: Following repolarization, the neuron enters a refractory period where voltage-gated sodium channels become temporarily inactivated, and potassium channels may remain open, causing hyperpolarization.

Effect on Membrane Potential: During this period, the neuron's membrane potential becomes slightly more negative than the normal resting potential, making it harder for the neuron to fire another action potential.

Result: The refractory period ensures unidirectional propagation of the action potential along the axon and prevents immediate reactivation, thereby allowing the neuron to return to a resting state and get ready for the next signal. This contributes to the controlled timing of neural signalling and prevents overlap of action potentials.

Differences Between Chemical and Electrical Synapses

Chemical Synapses:

●        How They Work: Chemical synapses use neurotransmitters to convey messages between neurons. When an action potential reaches the end of a presynaptic neuron, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These chemical messengers bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, which then generates a response.

●        Examples of Neurotransmitters:

o   Dopamine: Involved in reward and pleasure pathways.

o   Serotonin: Involved in mood regulation.

o   Acetylcholine: Plays a role in muscle activation and memory.

●        Hormonal Influence: Some neurotransmitters also function as hormones in the body (e.g., epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine).

●        Feature: This type of synapse is common in the central and peripheral nervous systems, allowing for complex modulation and control of responses. Chemical synapses are slower but allow for more varied responses.

●        Pathways:

o   Hormones travel via blood

o   NT travel via synapses

Electrical Synapses:

●        How They Work: Electrical synapses use gap junctions to allow ions to pass directly from one cell to another, creating an electrical current that continues the action potential in the next neuron.

●        Examples:

o   Gap Junctions in the Brain: Found in areas requiring synchronized activity, such as in certain parts of the brain that control rhythmic activities like breathing.

●        Feature: Electrical synapses allow for rapid communication between cells and are typically faster than chemical synapses. They are often used in pathways where a quick, coordinated response is necessary.

Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning:

●        How It Works: Classical conditioning involves learning through association between stimuli. An unconditioned stimulus (US) that naturally triggers a response becomes associated with a neutral stimulus (CS), which then becomes capable of triggering a similar response.

●        Examples:

o   Pavlov's Dogs: Bell (CS) paired with food (US) leads to salivation.

o   Fear Response: Loud noise (US) paired with light (CS) leads to startle response.

●        NW: the CS begins as a NS, only after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) does the neutral stimulus become conditioned to elicit a conditioned response (CR).

●        Feature: This type of learning is automatic and involuntary, involving reflexive behaviours. The response occurs regardless of consequences.

●        Pathways:

o   US → UR: The unconditioned stimulus naturally triggers the unconditioned response.

o   CS + US Pairing: The neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

o   CS → CR: After the association is learned, the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning:

●        How It Works: Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences of voluntary behaviours. Behaviours followed by reinforcement tend to increase, while those followed by punishment tend to decrease.

●        Types of Consequences:

o   Positive Reinforcement: Adding pleasant stimulus increases behaviour.

o   Negative Reinforcement: Removing unpleasant stimulus increases behaviour.

o   Positive Punishment: Adding unpleasant stimulus decreases behaviour.

o   Negative Punishment: Removing pleasant stimulus decreases behaviour

●        Feature: This type of learning is voluntary and involves conscious choices. The behaviour is modified based on its consequences, allowing for more complex behaviour modification.

●        Schedules of Reinforcement:

o   Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement given after a set number of responses (e.g., every 5 responses).

o   Variable Ratio: Reinforcement given after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., average of 5 responses).

o   Fixed Interval: Reinforcement is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed amount of time has elapsed (e.g., every 5 minutes).

o   Variable Interval: Reinforcement is given for the first response that occurs after a varying amount of time has elapsed (e.g., an average of 5 minutes).