Nationalism in India

Introduction to Nationalism in India

Modern nationalism, as witnessed in countries like Europe, often involved the formation of nation-states and a profound transformation in individuals’ perceptions of their identity and sense of belonging. In India, the emergence of this consciousness significantly intertwined with the anti-colonial struggle. A shared sense of oppression under colonialism forged bonds among diverse groups, albeit each class and community had its own unique experiences and interpretations of freedom. The Indian National Congress, particularly under Mahatma Gandhi, aimed to unify various factions of society within a singular national movement, although this quest for unity was not devoid of conflicts.

Prelude to Nationalism

Beginning from the 1920s, the chapter outlines crucial movements such as the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements aimed at exploring how the Congress attempted to cultivate national unity and how various social groups engaged with the movement.

1. Contextual Background

1.1 The Aftermath of World War I

The conclusion of the First World War in 1919 catalyzed an escalation of the national movement throughout India, incorporating new groups and methodologies of resistance. The war instigated a change in the economic milieu marked by:

A sharp rise in defense expenditures financed through war loans, leading to increased taxation (customs duties and income taxes).
Doubling of prices between 1913 and 1918, yielding severe hardships for the populace.
Forced recruitment of soldiers from rural areas, which fostered widespread dissent.
Crop failures in 1918-19 and 1920-21 that compounded food shortages exacerbated by an influenza epidemic, culminating in approximately 12-13 million deaths.

1.2 Emergence of New Leadership

With the socio-economic situation deteriorating post-war, Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a pivotal leader advocating a new mode of struggle, termed Satyagraha. Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 after achieving success in South Africa through this new method of mass agitation focused on truth and non-violence.

2. The Concept of Satyagraha

Satyagraha is rooted in the principle of truth and righteousness. Gandhi viewed it as:

A moral power that emphasizes non-violence against oppressors.
A form of active resistance, rejecting passive surrender to oppression. A true satyagrahi seeks to appeal to the conscience of the oppressor, firmly believing in the inevitability of the victory of truth.

Gandhi successfully organized several Satyagraha movements:

In 1917, he led struggles in Champaran (against oppressive plantation systems) and Kheda (supporting peasants amidst crop failures).
In response to the Rowlatt Act in 1919, which allowed the British government oppressive surveillance and detentions, Gandhi initiated a nationwide Satyagraha calling for civil disobedience.

3. The Rowlatt Act and Its Implications

The Rowlatt Act's hurried enactment provoked nationwide protests. Gandhi’s plan included:

A hartal (strike) on April 6, rallies in various cities, strikes by workers, and shop closures.
The British administration’s reaction included arrests and severe policing, notably exemplified by the Jallianwala Bagh massacre on April 13, where General Dyer ordered troops to fire on the gathered crowd, resulting in numerous casualties.

3.1 Consequences of Jallianwala Bagh

The Jallianwala Bagh incident spurred widespread outrage and led to civil unrest, showcasing the violent repression meted out by the colonial government.

4. Non-Cooperation Movement

In 1920, the Congress, under Gandhi's influence, launched the Non-Cooperation Movement in response to colonial policies and the disillusionment with British promises. Key objectives included:

Boycotting British parliament and institutions.
The surrender of titles awarded by the British, combined with popular mobilizations for Swaraj (self-rule).

4.1 Non-Cooperation’s Various Strands

The movement garnered participation across diverse social classes:

Middle-Class Involvement: Urban middle-class students abandoned government-controlled educational institutions, lawyers ceased practice, and foreign goods were boycotted.
Economic Impact: The import of foreign cloth halved, and local Indian textile production increased, though this movement eventually slowed due to the high cost of indigenous goods compared to foreign alternatives.
Rural Mobilization: Peasants rallied for reduced taxes and addressed grievances against landlords, yet the Congress struggled to manage the diverging interests efficiently.

5. Development in the Countryside

The Non-Cooperation Movement extended into rural areas, where it mobilized existing peasant dissatisfaction. Significant groups included:

Awadh Peasants: Led by figures like Jawaharlal Nehru and Baba Ramchandra, demands included abolition of forced labor (begar) and high rents.
Militant Movements: Leaders like Alluri Sitaram Raju in Andhra Pradesh utilized guerrilla tactics, advocating violence to expedite independence, thus deviating from Gandhi's ideology of non-violence.

6. Civil Disobedience and Salt March

In 1930, the Civil Disobedience Movement was initiated, marking a more pronounced defiance of colonial laws:

The Salt March: Gandhi's march from Sabarmati to Dandi was emblematic of resistance against the British salt monopoly, highlighting the reach and unity of the national movement.
Gandhi issued a letter to Viceroy Irwin listing demands, the most impactful being the abolition of the salt tax.

7. Participant Inclusivity

Different social groups had varied interpretations of Swaraj and consistent ideological commitments differed:

Peasants: Both rich and poor peasants engaged for various reasons including reducing tax burdens or demanding land rights.
Workers: While some participated, many remained apathetic due to lack of attention towards labor issues within the Congress movement.
Women: The civil disobedience saw a surge in women’s participation, often grouped from high castes in urban settings or affluent rural families.

8. The Impact of the Quit India Movement

The Quit India Movement marked a significant point in the national struggle, initiated on August 8, 1942, calling for complete British withdrawal. It mobilized various classes and segments of society, witnessing extensive participation amidst brutal government reprisals.

9. Final Thoughts

The evolution of Indian nationalism is characterized by multiplicity—a confluence of diverse aspirations and frustrations across social divisions. While the Congress sought unity, the varied demands and the diverse nature of English colonial opposition necessitated a more complex and contradictory national identity to emerge.