THEME 2

  • Geography:

    • Definition: Geography literally means "description of the earth," but it has evolved to focus on the land inhabited by human beings.

    • Classifications:

    • Regional geography and a correct conceptualization would be to talk about chronological geography.

  • Predecessors of Geography:

    • Before geography as a discipline, there are authors from other disciplines (philosophy, mathematics) who influenced its development.

    • Pythagoras (580-495 BC):

    • Contributions: Defended the sphericity of the Earth through observations, such as the disappearance of ships on the horizon.

    • Aristotle (384-322 BC):

    • Contributions: Developed the Theory of the Two Spheres. Proposed that the universe is composed of two spheres: a small one centered on the Earth and another larger one that forms the heavens.

    • This established a worldview that maintained a finite sense of the universe.

    • Aristarchus of Samos (310-230 BC):

    • Critique of Aristotle: Suggested that the Sun could not be so secondary, although his idea did not have much impact.

    • Eratosthenes (275-195 BC):

    • Recognized as the first geographer.

    • His treatise "Geography" includes:

      • Precise approximation of the Earth's length based on shadow observations in different cities on the summer solstice (June 21).

      • Deducing an angular difference of 7° and using the known distance between two points to calculate the Earth's circumference.

    • Hipparchus of Nicaea (190-120 BC):

    • Introduced the modern concept of geographic coordinates, establishing parallels and meridians for geographic reference.

    • Strabo (64 BC-24 AD):

    • First regional geographer, focused on characterizing territories, not just locating them.

    • Compiled data on the physical environment, activities, and cultures of known peoples, relating it to the political power of his time (Roman Empire).

    • Understood geography as dynamically interrelated, not static, suggesting the existence of more emerged zones in a potential southern hemisphere.

    • Ptolemy (100-170 AD):

    • Provided a more scientific body to the Theory of the Two Spheres.

    • Described the apparent movements of planets through deferents and epicycles, although he recognized the limitations of the instruments of his time.

  • CHANGES IN CLASSICAL AND MEDIEVAL TIMES

    • Christianity in the Middle Ages:

    • Diocletian: Persecutions of Christians.

    • Constantine: Establishes religious freedom (Edict of Milan, 313) and converts Christianity into the official religion of the Empire (Edict of Nicaea, 325).

    • St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430): Introduces dependence of scientific thought on the doctrine of the Church.

    • Hypatia of Alexandria (355-415): Opposition to the subordination of science to faith, warning of the deterioration of science.

    • St. Isidore of Seville (556-636):

    • Compilation of ancient knowledge (simplified geography with three parts: Asia, Europe, Africa) associating names with regions (Shem, Ham, Japheth).

  • THE ISLAMIC WORLD AND GEOGRAPHY

    • Five Precepts of Islam: With geographical relevance:

    • Pilgrimage to Mecca: A necessary journey for healthy Muslims.

    • Daily prayers five times: Comparison with Christianity (Sundays).

    • Fasting during Ramadan: Lunar month with a geographical background.

    • Almsgiving: Similar to tithing in Christianity.

    • Jihad: Effort to expand the faith, in vibrant territorial expansion.

    • Al-Andalus:

    • Battle of Guadalete (711): Rapid conquest of Al-Andalus.

    • Al-Razi: 9th-century geographer, author of "Description of Al-Andalus." His analysis structure includes limits of the Cora, urban characteristics, defensive network, settlements, topography, natural resources, and production.

    • Averroes and Maimonides: Influences in medicine and philosophy during the era.

    • Al-Idrisi (12th century): Creator of a more advanced geography of Spain providing a significant planisphere that includes the Mediterranean and important geographical details.

    • Ibn Battuta (14th century): Traveler with significant accounts throughout various territories, providing valuable descriptions.

    • Ibn Khaldun (1332): Reflects origin in Seville, considered a pioneer in social sciences with reflections rather than narratives.

  • EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE AND ITS IMPACTS

    • Recovery of Classical Texts:

    • School of Translators of Toledo: Translation of Greek texts into Latin and subsequently into Romance languages, aiding a European renaissance.

    • St. Thomas Aquinas (13th century): Integration of Aristotle with Christian doctrine, asserting that the Bible should be interpreted with metaphors.

    • Scrutiny spirits: Nicolas of Oresme and others question the nature of the universe.

    • Renaissance (15th century): Start of the Scientific Revolution with Copernicus's heliocentrism.

    • Copernicus: In his work, moves the center of the universe from Earth to the sun; however, orbits are circular.

  • SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES

    • Galileo Galilei: Use of the telescope and conflict with clergy over heliocentrism.

    • Kepler: His three laws of planetary motion based on Brahe's observations.

    • Bernhard Varenio: Significant contributions, a Geography that integrates political and social aspects of societies; the influence of Europe on its geography.

    • Kant (1724-1804): Differentiation between pure sciences (general geography) and social sciences (regional geography).

    • Humboldt: Physical geography based on direct observation of nature.

    • Ritter: Protagonist in focusing on human geography and the relationship between humans and the physical environment.

  • NATIONALIST MOVEMENTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON GEOGRAPHY

    • Centripetal and Centrifugal Nationalism: Various territorial aspirations and groupings of societies.

    • Geographic Societies: Contributions to the knowledge of new territories especially during colonization.

    • Ratzel: Proponent of Geographic Determinism, emphasizing the physical environment.

    • French classical school: Vidal and his students; began to view geography as influenced rather than determined, highlighting the importance of humans in their relationship with the environment.

    • Quantitative Geography in the 20th Century: Proposals about cause-effect relationships, data-based models, and the inclusion of statistics in modern geography. Introduces proposals for radical geography centered on social and committed issues.