Comprehensive Notes on European Union Institutions and Governance and Institutions

General Observations and the Institutional Role of the European Commission

The European Commission serves as the primary executive body of the European Union and constitutes one vertex of the so-called institutional triangle. In terms of representative philosophy, the Commission is unique because it is tasked with representing the interests of the European Union as a whole, rather than the specific interests of individual Member States. This distinguishes its role from the Council of the European Union. Its primary headquarters are located in Brussels, though some services are based in Luxembourg. Furthermore, the Commission maintains a physical presence throughout the world, with Representations in every Member State and a network of $139$ Delegations globally. As of current leadership, the President of the Commission is Ursula von der Leyen, serving a term of $5$ years. For public engagement, the Commission utilizes Europe Direct, which consists of information centers, documentation centers, and a network of experts known as the EU-TEAM.

Structure and Composition of the College of Commissioners

The leadership of the Commission is found in the College of Commissioners, which is composed of $27$ members, ensuring one representative from each Member State. This group includes the President, Ursula von der Leyen, who holds the authority to decide policy area responsibilities. She is supported by $6$ Executive Vice-Presidents and the High Representative for the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Kaja Kallas, who concurrently serves as a Vice-President. The remaining $20$ individuals are commissioners. Every Commissioner is supported by a personal Cabinet and is assigned a specific policy area, with the exception of the President. Below this political level, the administrative work is carried out by departments known as Directorates-General (DGs), service departments, and executive agencies.

Administrative Departments and Specialized Agencies

The administrative functions of the Commission are divided among various specific structures. The Directorate-General for Budget is known as DG BUDG, while Climate Action is handled by DG CLIMA. Service departments include the Data Protection Officer (DPO), the European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF), and the European Parliament Selection Office (EPSO). Additionally, there are several executive agencies tasked with operational management, such as the European Climate, Infrastructure and Environment Executive Agency, the European Education and Culture Executive Agency, and the European Health and Digital Executive Agency. Other specialized bodies include the European Innovation Council and Small and Medium-sized Enterprises Executive Agency, the European Research Council Executive Agency, and the Europe Research Executive Agency.

Presidential Duties and the 2024-2029 Strategic Priorities

The President of the Commission carries several critical responsibilities, beginning with the definition of the general policy direction and the detailed planning of the EU agenda. The President assigns portfolios to each Commissioner and retains the power to change these attributions at any time. Further duties include chairing the meetings of the College of Commissioners, representing the Commission in interactions with other European institutions, and regularly answering questions before the European Parliament. The College as a whole decides on strategic objectives and uses them to draw up an annual work programme. For the term spanning $2024-2029$, Ursula von der Leyen has identified several priorities: a plan for sustainable prosperity and competitiveness, a new era for European Defense and Security, supporting social models, sustaining quality of life regarding food and nature, protecting democracy and values, leveraging global power through partnerships, and preparing the Union for the future.

Core Tasks and Infringement Procedures

The Commission performs four main tasks: proposing new legislation to the European Parliament (EP) and the Council of the European Union (CUE), managing EU policies and allocating funding, enforcing EU law as the guardian of the Treaties, and representing the EU on the international stage. As the guardian of the treaties, the Commission must intervene if a Member State fails to apply or breaks European law through an infringement procedure. This procedure starts with an Early Procedure, where the Commission attempts to resolve the issue through structured dialogue to avoid formal legal action. If this fails, the Commission launches a Formal Procedure, which may eventually lead to a definitive ruling from the European Court of Justice.

Election and Operation of the Commission

The process of appointing the President begins when national leaders in the European Council put forward a candidate via a qualified majority, considering the results of the European Parliament elections. The candidate must then secure the support of a majority of the members of the European Parliament. Once elected, the President-elect selects the other members of the College based on suggestions from EU countries. This list of nominees must be approved by the Council of the European Union and the President. Each nominee faces an appearance before the European Parliament to answer questions and present their vision before the Parliament votes on the team as a whole. Finally, the group is appointed by the European Council by a qualified majority. Operationally, the Commission follows the principle of collective responsibility or collegiality. This means all decisions are taken collectively, and all Commissioners are held equally accountable before the European Parliament. The College meets at least once a week, typically on Wednesdays in Brussels, though the President can call extraordinary meetings for specific events or topics.

Mandate Termination and Consultation Documents

A Commissioner's term lasts $5$ years and is renewable. A mandate ends due to the expiration of the term, death, individual resignation, or a block resignation of the entire College. Furthermore, the European Parliament has the power to dismiss the Commission as a whole, while the European Court of Justice (EUCJ) may dismiss individual Commissioners or revoke their mandates. To involve the public and stakeholders, the Commission uses Green Papers and White Papers. Green Papers are discussion documents intended to stimulate debate on specific topics. These often lead to the development of White Papers, which contain formal proposals for EU action in a specific area. The goal of a White Paper is to launch a debate among the public, the Parliament, and the Council to facilitate political consensus. Citizens can also participate via petitions, the European Citizens’ Initiative, or through Citizens’ Dialogues such as the Conference on the Future of Europe.

The European Parliament: History and Membership

The European Parliament is the primary law-making body of the Union. It was established in $1952$ as the Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community, renamed the European Parliament in $1962$, and held its first direct elections in $1979$. As of the $1979-2024$ election period, there are $45$ years of electoral history. It is composed of $720$ Members of the European Parliament (MEPs), who are elected every $5$ years through direct universal suffrage. The current President is Roberta Metsola. The EP operates in $24$ official languages, reflecting its commitment to multilingualism. Its work is distributed across three locations: Strasbourg, Brussels, and Luxembourg. The number of MEPs per country is roughly proportionate to population; however, dynamic caps are in place: no country can have fewer than $6$ or more than $96$ MEPs. For instance, Germany has $96$, Romania has $33$, Estonia has $7$, while Cyprus, Luxembourg, and Malta each have $6$.

Legislative Powers and Political Groups of the European Parliament

The Parliament shares legislative and budgetary powers with the Council through the co-decision procedure. This includes the adoption of the Multi-annual Financial Framework, which dictates the long-term budget for a period of $7$ years. The President of the Parliament is elected for a renewable term of $2.5$ years and represent the body to other institutions and the world. Internally, the Parliament works through two stages: Committees, located in Brussels, prepare legislation by policy area; and Plenary sessions, typically held in Strasbourg for four days once a month, where final votes occur. MEPs are organized by political affiliation rather than nationality into $8$ main political groups. A group requires at least $23$ members from at least one-quarter of the Member States. The current groups include the European People’s Party, the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats, Patriots for Europe, European Conservatives and Reformists, Renew Europe, the Greens/European Free Alliance, The Left (GUE/NGL), and Europe of Sovereign Nations.

The European Council: Strategic Leadership

The European Council represents the highest level of political cooperation between EU countries. It was established as an informal forum in $1974$, gained formal status in the $1992$ Maastricht Treaty, and became an official EU institution with the $2009$ Lisbon Treaty. It meets at least $4$ times per year. Crucially, the European Council does not negotiate or adopt EU laws. Its composition includes the heads of state or government of the Member States, the President of the European Council (currently Antonio Costa), and the President of the European Commission. The President is elected by a qualified majority for a term of $2.5$ years, renewable once. The body defines the general political direction and priorities of the EU through a strategic agenda and the adoption of "conclusions" identifying specific issues of concern. It also plays a key role in appointments, including proposing the Commission President and appointing the Executive Board of the European Central Bank.

The Council of the European Union: Ministerial Governance

The Council of the European Union (informally the EU Council) is where national ministers from each EU country meet to adopt laws and coordinate policies. It was established in $1958$ as the Council of the European Economic Community and is headquartered in Brussels. It meets in $10$ different configurations depending on the topic, such as General Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Economic and Financial Affairs, and Environment. The General Affairs configuration handles cross-cutting policies like enlargement and the adoption of the multiannual financial framework. Meetings are chaired by the minister of the country holding the rotating $6$-month Council presidency, with the exception of the Foreign Affairs Council, which is chaired by the High Representative. Additionally, the Eurogroup is an informal body where finance ministers of Eurozone countries discuss matters related to the Euro.

Coreper and Specialized Council Preparatory Bodies

Before the Council makes decisions, work is prepared by the Committee of the Permanent Representatives of the Governments of the Member States to the European Union, known as Coreper. Coreper is not a decision-making body but makes recommendations. It is divided into Coreper I (deputy permanent representatives) and Coreper II (permanent representatives). Coreper I prepares the work for configurations like agriculture, competitiveness, and transport. Coreper II handles economic affairs, foreign affairs, general affairs, and justice. Beneath Coreper are approximately $150$ highly specialized working parties and committees. These include committees set up by treaties, those set up by Coreper (chaired by the rotating presidency), and ad-hoc committees created for specific, temporary tasks.

Main Attributes and Voting Systems of the Council

The Council of the European Union negotiates and adopts laws, often through co-decision with the Parliament. It also coordinates member states' policies in economic, fiscal, employment, and educational fields. It is responsible for developing common foreign and security policy and concluding international agreements based on mandates given to the Commission. The Council also adopts the EU budget. Decisions are made using three voting systems: simple majority ($14$ member states) for procedural matters; qualified majority for most legislation (requiring $55\%$ of member states representing at least $65\%$ of the population); and unanimity for sensitive matters like citizenship or EU membership. The Presidency rotates every $6$ months, but countries work in "trios" of three Member States to ensure long-term continuity over an $18$-month cycle.

The European Central Bank (ECB) and the Euro

The ECB is headquartered in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, and is currently led by President Christine Lagarde. The idea of a common currency was launched in the $1962$ Marjolin Memorandum, formalized in the $1992$ Maastricht Treaty, and the ECB was established in $1998$. The Euro became the single currency in $1999$, with banknotes and coins entering circulation in $2002$. Currently, $21$ of the $27$ Member States use the Euro, with micro-states (Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, Vatican City) using it via formal arrangement, and others (Montenegro, Kosovo) using it without one. The ECB's main tasks are managing the Euro, price stability, and conducting monetary policy. It operates within the European System of Central Banks (ESCB) and the Eurosystem. Its decision-making bodies are the Governing Council (main body), the Executive Board (day-to-day operations), and the General Council (advisory). Under $\text{Article } 130$, the ECB is legally independent from EU institutions and national governments.

Convergence Criteria for Eurozone Participation

For a country to join the Eurozone, it must meet specific economic criteria assessed by the ECB and the Commission every $2$ years. Price stability requires that the average inflation rate must not exceed that of the three best-performing Member States by more than $1.5\%$. Public finance rules dictate that the budget deficit must not exceed $3\%$ of GDP, and public debt must not exceed $60\%$ of GDP. Interest rates must not exceed the top three states' performance by more than $2\%$. Finally, exchange rate stability requires maintaining a fluctuation within $\pm 15\%$ against the Euro for at least $2$ years.

The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)

Established in $1952$ and located in Luxembourg, the CJEU ensures that EU law is interpreted and applied consistently across all Member States. It operates as a multilingual institution in $24$ languages. The institution consists of two major courts: the Court of Justice and the General Court. The Court of Justice consists of one judge per country plus $11$ advocates general, focusing on requests for preliminary rulings from national courts. The General Court (established in $1989$) consists of $2$ judges per country and deals primarily with competition law, state aid, and trade. Judges are appointed for renewable $6$-year terms. Individuals or companies can take action against EU institutions directly in the General Court if they have suffered damage, or indirectly through national courts referring cases to the Court of Justice.

The European Court of Auditors: Fiscal Accountability

The European Court of Auditors is the EU’s independent external auditor, established in $1977$ and becoming an official EU institution in $1993$. Based in Luxembourg with approximately $900$ staff, it is led by President Tony Murphy. It consists of $27$ members (one per state) appointed for renewable $6$-year terms. The Court is organized into five Chambers covering areas such as natural resources, cohesion, security/justice, markets/economy, and financing. The Court audits the revenue and expenditure of the EU, primarily focusing on how the Commission handles the budget. It performs three types of audits: financial audits (account accuracy), compliance audits (following rules), and performance audits (value for money). While it has no legal powers, it reports suspected fraud to OLAF and provides an annual report to the Parliament and Council to assist in the budget approval process.