WHP-AP 6-1-8 Read - Struggle and Transformation in China - 1210L (2)

Struggle and Transformation in China

By Bridgette Byrd O’Connor

  • China’s cultural diversity has existed long before modern influences arrived.

Background

  • Late 17th Century:

    • The Ming dynasty faced internal disarray and dissent.

    • Ming generals allied with militarized Manchurian groups.

    • Resulted in the establishment of the Qing Dynasty, which lasted over 250 years.

    • Qing emperors expanded China's borders, incorporating various ethnicities and cultures.

    • By the 19th century, the population reached approximately 410 million.

    • Ethnic tensions existed, particularly between the Manchu rulers and Han Chinese.

    • Conflicts arose, leading to resentment and viewing the Qing as foreign.

  • Qing Empire Peak (18th Century):

    • Under Emperor Qian Long (Ch’ien Lung), the empire reached prosperity and territorial height.

    • Encounter with British ambitions for expanded trade, led by ambassador Lord Macartney in 1793.

      • Emperor Qian Long rejected British proposals, emphasizing that China had no need for foreign goods.

Perils of the Qing Dynasty

  • Opium Wars (1839-1860 CE), Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864 CE), Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901 CE):

    • Internal and external struggles defined the late Qing dynasty.

    • Modern Chinese historians claim foreign intrusion led to disasters and major crises.

    • Issues: famine, mismanagement, natural disasters, defeats by both rebels and foreign powers.

    • Ethnicity, religion, and socio-economic disputes contributed to national disunity.

  • Foreign Influence:

    • British opium trade affected China’s economy; silver became scarce.

    • Qing response included banning opium trade, leading to conflict with British traders.

    • The military conflict resulted in loss of Hong Kong and imposition of unequal treaties on China.

Internal Conflicts

  • Taiping Rebellion:

    • Led by Hong Xiuquan, combined Confucian and Christian ideologies; targeted Manchu landlords.

    • Realized the plight of peasants due to economic mismanagement and foreign domination.

    • Assistance in the conflict from foreign powers reflected growing tensions.

    • Resulted in up to 20 million deaths, showcasing deep national divisions.

  • Continued Struggles:

    • Increased foreign influence led to instability in ethnic communities.

    • Adaptation pressures: coastal cities experienced Western cultural influx.

    • Traditional Chinese was in conflict with modernization efforts driven by external pressures.

Path to Modernization

  • Post-Opium Wars Shift:

    • Qing Dynasty's defeat prompted a push towards modernization and Western influences.

    • Railways and advanced weaponry began to emerge.

    • The Tongzhi Restoration (1860-1874) focused on strengthening traditional values with modern adaptations.

    • Empress Dowager Cixi pushed these reforms, ruling for almost 50 years.

Empress Dowager Cixi

  • Conflicted Leadership:

    • Cixi sought to balance modernization with traditional Chinese values.

    • Her rule saw significant reforms despite her controversial image.

    • Defeat in Sino-Japanese War triggered the Hundred Days’ Reform (Wuxu Reform).

  • Cixi's Coup:

    • Evolved from semi-retirement to wrest control back from her nephew, Emperor Guangxu, during reformations.

    • Supported a backlash against Western influence, leading to boxer uprisings against foreigners in 1900.

    • Subsequent foreign military response led to Cixi instituting several suggested reforms.

Final Days of the Qing Dynasty

  • End of Monarchy:

    • The 1912 Xinhai Revolution forced the last emperor to abdicate, marking the end of imperial rule.

    • Transitioned into the republican era, finishing a 2000-year sequence of dynastic leadership.