Chapter 8: The Jazz Age
The Jazz Age & Return to "Normalcy"
Return to "Normalcy" (Post-WWI):
A shift away from previous policies and attitudes, emphasizing a return to pre-WWI domestic concerns.
Rejected Progressive reforms, extensive business regulation, foreign intervention, and international leadership.
Election of 1920:
Candidates: Warren G. Harding (Republican, with Calvin Coolidge) vs. James M. Cox (Democrat, with Franklin D. Roosevelt).
"Silent Cal" Coolidge: Earned his nickname for his reserved demeanor.
Pre-Polio Roosevelt: Franklin D. Roosevelt was the running mate, years before his polio diagnosis.
Why Warren G. Harding Won:
Americans were weary of moralism prevalent during the Progressive Era and wartime sacrifices.
Pledges for a "return to good old days."
Considered a "dark horse" candidate, not a leading contender initially.
Possessed a perceived "presidential look" and an affable, reassuring personality.
H.L. Mencken's Critique of Harding's Oratory: Described it as reminiscent of "stale bean soup… of dogs barking idiotically through endless nights. It is so bad that a sort of grandeur creeps into it," highlighting its often convoluted and unintelligible nature.
Backlash: Harding's reliance on personality and lack of depth later contributed to issues during his presidency, especially with scandals.
Election Outcome: Popular vote: 14 million for Harding vs. 9 million for Cox. Electoral vote: 404 for Harding vs. 127 for Cox.
Harding's Presidency & Scandals
"Best Brains Theory" & Practical Difficulties:
Harding favored a ceremonial role, believing he could delegate to competent individuals.
He was often overwhelmed by the complexities of the presidency, confessing, "I know somewhere there is an economist who knows the truth, but I don’t know where to find him and haven’t the sense to know him and trust him when I find him."
His loyalty to friends, often referred to as the "Ohio Gang," caused him distress: "It’s my friends that keep me walking the floor nights."
Harding's Cabinet - "The Good":
Charles Evans Hughes (Secretary of State): A respected legal mind, having served two stints on the Supreme Court.
Herbert Hoover (Secretary of Commerce): Known as "Wonder Boy" and jokingly, "Assistant Sec of Everything Else." He promoted efficiency through trade associations.
Andrew Mellon (Secretary of the Treasury): Focused on balancing the budget, cutting the National Debt, and reducing taxes. His policies were influenced by principles of the Laffer Curve and Supply-Side Economics, which suggest that lower tax rates can stimulate economic growth.
Harding's Cabinet - "The Bad":
Harry M. Daugherty (Attorney General): Harding's 1920 campaign manager. Accused of accepting bribes from a German agent concerning the sale of German-owned American company patents seized during WWI. He refused to turn over documents, claiming immunity and insinuating tacit Harding approval.
Albert B. Fall (Secretary of the Interior): Central figure in the Teapot Dome Scandal, becoming the first Cabinet Secretary to be sent to prison.
Charles R. Forbes (Director of Veterans Affairs): Charged with overcharging veterans hospitals by 250 million.
Colonel Thomas Miller (Office of Alien Property): Involved in selling German chemical patents seized during WWI.
The Ugly - Teapot Dome Scandal:
Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall orchestrated the transfer of valuable Naval oil reserves (Teapot Dome in Wyoming and Elk Hills in California) from the Navy Department to his Interior Department.
He then secretly leased these reserves to two private oil companies: Mammoth Oil (for Teapot Dome) and Pan-American Petroleum (for Elk Hills).
Fall falsely claimed these leases were in the government's interest, but received over 325,000 in bonds and cash, as well as land and livestock, in illicit payments.
Harding's Avoidance of Implication:
Harding passed away from a heart attack on August 2, 1923, before the full extent of his administration's corruption became publicly known. This death spared him direct implication in the unfolding scandals, though rumors of poisoning circulated.
His prior reputation was generally good.
Calvin Coolidge's Legacy: "Silent Cal" succeeded Harding, known for his honesty and integrity. However, he was often criticized for being rather passive, famously stating, "The business of America is business."
Foreign Policy and Economic Isolationism
Efforts to Prevent War:
Washington Naval Conference (1921): Initiated by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes.
Aimed at naval disarmament, leading to an agreement to scrap military ships and impose a 10-year moratorium on new battleship construction.
Established a rigid ratio system for naval tonnage among the major powers (Great Britain, France, United States, Italy, Japan), which caused resentment, especially in Japan.
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928):
Signed by 62 nations, it officially renounced, or "outlawed," war as an instrument of national policy.
However, it crucially lacked any means to enforce its provisions or punish aggressors, making it a symbolic gesture of idealism without the necessary political will for enforcement.
Tariffs and Reparations (Economic Isolationism):
Beyond the Washington Naval Conference and Kellogg-Briand Pact, U.S. foreign policy was largely isolationist, designed to prevent future U.S. intervention in European conflicts.
Fordney-McCumber Tariff (1922): Raised tariffs to almost 60%, significantly higher than Wilson's Underwood Tariff. This was a form of economic isolationism aimed at protecting American industries but hindering European recovery.
Allied War Debts: The U.S. insisted that Allied nations repay their war debts.
Allies had two main options: export goods to the U.S. (difficult due to high tariffs) or collect reparations from Germany.
Germany subsequently defaulted on its reparations, leading France to prepare for military intervention (marching into the industrial Ruhr Valley), which the U.S. had to head off to prevent a new war.
Dawes Plan (1924):
Proposed by Charles G. Dawes (a U.S. banker and later Coolidge's Vice President).
Arranged for U.S. loans of 2.5 billion to Germany to help it pay reparations.
Established a cycle of repayment: U.S. loans to Germany, Germany pays reparations to Allies, Allies pay war debts back to the U.S.
Great Britain and France remained bitter about repaying war debts, arguing they bore the bulk of the fighting, U.S. industries had profited from the war, and the U.S. was relatively unscathed.
Only Finland consistently repaid its debts.
Widespread defaults caused resentment within the U.S.
International Financial System Diagram:
U.S. loans 2.5 Billion to Germany.
Germany pays 2.0 Billion in Reparations Payments to Allies.
Allies pay 2.6 Billion in War Debt Payments to U.S.
Nativism and Immigration Policies
Emergency Quota Act of 1921:
Established a quota system, limiting annual immigration to 3% of the number of people from that country already living in the U.S. in 1910.
This was later revised to 2% of the 1890 immigrant population, effectively favoring longer-established nationalities from Northern and Western Europe.
It discriminated heavily against Southern and Eastern European immigrants, who were often feared to be "tainted" by communism or other radical ideologies.
National Origins Act of 1929:
Further tightened restrictions by shifting the base year for quotas to 1920.
Crucially, it excluded Japanese immigrants altogether, violating previous agreements like the Gentlemen's Agreement.
These acts largely achieved their goal of severely limiting immigration, especially from non-Northern/Western European countries.
The Business of America & Economic Transformation
Laissez-Faire Philosophy:
President Coolidge's famous declaration: "The chief business of the American people is business." and "The man who builds a factory builds a temple."
Emphasized minimal government intervention in the economy.
During this period, Americans possessed approximately 40% of the world's wealth.
Impact of the Automobile:
Transformed American society and infrastructure.
Infrastructure: Led to massive road construction (e.g., Route 66, nicknamed the "Mother Road"), and the proliferation of gas stations, garages, parks, hotels, and roadside diners.
Urban Sprawl: Facilitated urban sprawl and commuting, as people could live further from their workplaces.
Social Impact: Became a significant status symbol, rivaling the importance of modern home appliances (e.g., "car vs. bathtub"). It revolutionized dating and leisure.
Early Innovations: The Stanley Steamer (1906) could reach 127 m.p.h. and run on any fuel, but its cost (2,000+) was prohibitive compared to Ford's models (less than 450).
Economic Impact: Symbolized American ingenuity and economic success. Spurred growth in related industries like steel, rubber, glass, gasoline, and road construction. Its importance was comparable to the housing industry in its overall economic effect.
By the 1920s, the U.S. accounted for 80% of all registered automobiles globally.
Infant Airplane Industry:
Early uses included mail delivery and "barnstorming" (stunt flying).
Charles Lindbergh: Achieved instant global fame for his solo transatlantic flight in the Spirit of St. Louis on May 20-21, 1927, covering the distance in 33.5 hours.
Significance of Lindbergh's Flight: His achievement was so monumental that news of it preempted reports of the Bath School Disaster in Michigan three days earlier, the worst school killing in U.S. history, where a disillusioned school board member (Andrew Kehoe) bombed a school, killing 45 and wounding 58, before a secondary explosion and suicide.
Lindbergh's Later Life: Exemplified the spirit of the 1920s as a hero, but his fame also brought tragedy (the kidnapping of his infant son, for which Bruno Hauptmann was convicted). He became an enigmatic figure, later involved in the "America First" movement and observed the German Luftwaffe.
Amelia Earhart: Another iconic aviator, who made her own significant transatlantic flight on May 20, 1932.
Electronic Conveniences & Leisure:
The widespread availability of alternating current (AC) made household appliances feasible and eventually necessities.
These included refrigerators, cooking ranges, radios, phonographs, washing machines, vacuum cleaners, and sewing machines.
Impact on National Culture: Led to more spare time for both men and women, as household chores became less demanding. This fostered a "Golden Age of American Sports" and increased participation in recreation.
Sports: Baseball became the "national pastime," alongside growing interest in boxing, golf, football, and tennis.
Dawn of Modern Advertising:
Utilized psychology to turn luxuries into perceived necessities, often leveraging peer pressure and concerns about appearance.
Examples: Slogans like "Reach for a Lucky instead of a sweet" (linking smoking to weight loss) and "Even your best friend won’t tell you" (promiting products like deodorant, toothpaste, and shampoo by preying on insecurity).
Listerine Advertisement: A famous ad detailed, "She was a beautiful girl and talented too…Yet in the one pursuit that stands foremost in the mind of every girl and woman – marriage – she was a failure," implying bad breath was the cause.
Business success was highly idolized, with civic organizations like the Rotary, Lions, and Kiwanis clubs gaining prominence.
Superficial Prosperity & Consumer Debt:
Despite booming markets, there was a significant disparity of wealth.
The installment plan (buying on credit) became widespread, with slogans like "Buy now, enjoy while you pay" and "A dollar down and a dollar forever." This led to a significant increase in consumer debt, a potential precursor to future economic problems.
The Roaring Life of the 1920s: Social Change
Urbanization:
Rev. Billy Sunday, a prominent evangelist, incorrectly predicted a decade of virtue. Instead, cities offered jobs and newfound freedoms.
The 1920 Census revealed that 51.4% of the U.S. population lived in cities (defined as populations of 2,500 or more), marking a demographic shift.
New Urban Scene & Entertainment:
Cities were hubs for entertainment: movies, vaudeville shows, speakeasies, and sports (especially baseball, America's pastime).
Prohibition (The "Noble Experiment"):
Clash of Values: Represented a significant cultural clash between urban and rural values, with rural areas generally more supportive of temperance.
Legislation: Mandated by the 18th Amendment (ratified January 1920) and enforced by the Volstead Act of 1919. The Prohibition Bureau operated under the Treasury Department.
It prohibited the manufacture, sale, or transportation of alcoholic beverages.
Rationale: Proponents believed alcohol caused crime, poverty, domestic abuse, and workplace accidents.
Reasons for Failure:
Cultural Resistance: Many immigrant cultures did not view drinking as a sin and resented government "meddling."
Lack of Public Support: Widespread public support was absent, leading H.L. Mencken to quip that enforcing Prohibition was like "trying to dry up the Atlantic with a post-office blotter."
Weariness of Moralism: After WWI-era sacrifices, many desired to enjoy life.
Underfunded Enforcement: The government lacked adequate funds and personnel (only 1,550 federal agents and police) to patrol 18,700 miles of coastline, monitor illegal stills, and interdict transport (which some trace as an origin of NASCAR).
Speakeasies and Bootleggers:
"Speakeasies" were hidden saloons and nightclubs where patrons spoke "easily" or quietly to avoid suspicion, often requiring a password or card for entry.
They attracted a mix of middle and upper-middle class individuals.
Breaking the law became "a sort of national sport," as Mencken observed.
Organized Crime & Al Capone:
Prohibition fueled the rise of powerful crime syndicates.
Al Capone: Dominated Chicago's underworld, controlling an estimated 10,000 speakeasies and generating around 105 million in 1927 (averaging 60 million/yr).
His empire was responsible for the infamous St. Valentine’s Day Massacre.
He was ultimately convicted not for violent crimes but for tax evasion, with prosecutor Elliot Ness's "Untouchables" playing a key role.
Capone died at age 48 after an early release from prison, and was, to some extent, revered and even glamorized by the public.
Science and Religion Clash: The Scopes Trial
Fundamentalism:
A conservative Protestant movement advocating a literal interpretation of the Bible.
It emerged in response to: growing trust in science (especially Darwin's theory of evolution) and increasing acceptance of diverse religious faiths, particularly those practiced by immigrant groups.
Fundamentalists vehemently opposed the theory of evolution, leading to its ban from public schools in many areas.
Strongest in the South and West due to a more native-born Protestant base and fewer immigrants.
Key advocates included Billy Sunday and Aimee Semple McPherson.
Scopes Trial (1925):
Background: In March 1925, Tennessee passed a law forbidding the teaching of evolution in public schools.
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), founded in 1920 to defend public rights (and notable for its opposition to the Red Scare and lynchings), promised to defend any teacher who challenged the law.
The Trial: John T. Scopes, a high school biology teacher in Dayton, Tennessee, wilfully broke the law.
Key Figures: Pro-evolution defense attorney Clarence Darrow faced off against fundamentalist champion and prosecutor William Jennings Bryan.
Bryan's Cross-Examination: Darrow famously called Bryan as a Bible "expert witness." Under Darrow's intense questioning, Bryan was cornered, admitting that sections of the Bible (like the 6-day creation) might not be interpreted as literal 24-hour days.
Bryan's Death: Bryan died shortly after the trial, possibly due to the heat, pressure, and the public discrediting he endured. He had been a three-time presidential candidate, Secretary of State, and an opponent of imperialism and war.
Outcome: Scopes was convicted and fined 100. However, the Tennessee Supreme Court later overturned the conviction on a technicality, though the anti-evolution law remained on the books for decades.
The Flapper and Changing Social Roles
The Flapper Image:
New Attitudes: Represented a generation of women who were more independent, assertive, and openly engaged in behaviors previously considered scandalous, such as public drinking and smoking.
New Fashion: Characterized by "bobbed" (short) hair, felt hats, the rejection of corsets (a trend dating back to WWI, when women discarded them for practicality, leading to the term "ironsides" for those who still wore them, signifying a "wallflower"), waistless (often short) dresses that rejected Victorian hourglass constraints, and silk stockings.
Miss America Pageant: Began in Atlantic City, NJ, in 1921, showcasing the new, more "revealing" bathing suits of the era.
The "Double Standard":
Despite new freedoms, churches and schools often protested the "new" morals of flappers.
Women were still largely judged differently than men regarding drinking, smoking, dating, careers, and even housework.
Working Opportunities for Women:
While more women entered the workforce, most were still relegated to "women's occupations" such as secretaries, librarians, nurses, teachers, and social workers.
The primary role for most women remained in the home.
Mavericks: Notable exceptions included aviator Amelia Earhart ("Lady Lindie") and Margaret Sanger, who founded the American Birth Control League in 1921 to advocate for women's right to access birth control information.
The Changing Family:
Electronic Conveniences: Appliances like washing machines, electric stoves, and vacuum cleaners, along with ready-made clothes and canned food, significantly reduced the time spent on housework.
Wartime Experience: For many women, wartime job experience had broadened their perspectives and expectations.
Evolving Marital Roles: These changes led to evolving marital roles, with discussions emerging about shared housework and the implications if the female spouse also worked outside the home.
Movies like Cheaper by the Dozen (1920s) and Mona Lisa Smile (1950s) address these evolving female roles.
Fads, News, and Heroes of the 1920s
Fads of the 1920s:
Flagpole Sitting: Popularized by figures like "Shipwreck" Kelly, who sat for an astonishing 145 days.
Dance Marathons: Extremes like a 119-day dance marathon. The "Charleston" dance exemplified the era's energetic spirit.
"Patent-leather hair" (slicked-back, shiny hair).
Jazz: Its emergence had significant implications for race relations and cultural crossover.
Vocabulary of the 1920s:
Babe, Beeswax, The Bee's Knees, Bootleg, Cat’s Meow, Clam, Crush, Dolled Up, Dough, Double Cross, Fire Extinguisher, Gatecrasher, The Goods, Keen, Moonshine, Scram, Screwy, Skirt, Speakeasy, Swell, Upchuck.
Expanding News & Radio:
Radio became a cheap and ubiquitous form of entertainment and a trusted source of news, with major networks like RCA, NBC, CBS, and GE.
Its power was demonstrated by the public reaction to Orson Welles's "War of the Worlds" broadcast.
Also gave rise to "Soap Operas."
New Heroes:
The era's money and leisure time created a demand for public figures and heroes.
Sports Heroes: Included iconic figures like Babe Ruth (baseball), Satchel Paige (Negro Leagues baseball), Bobby Jones (golf), Walter Hagen (golf), Jack Dempsey (boxing), Red Grange (football), and Knute Rockne (Notre Dame football coach).
Common themes among 1920s celebrities and athletes often included rags-to-riches stories, exceptional talent, and a powerful, captivating public persona.
Movie Stars: Charlie Chaplin was a global cinematic icon.
The Arts in the 1920s: Literature
Writers:
F. Scott Fitzgerald: Chronicled the excesses and disillusionment of the era. His wife, Zelda, was a prominent flapper. He coined the term "Jazz Age." His masterpiece, The Great Gatsby, critiques the superficiality of the American Dream.
Ernest Hemingway: A WWI veteran, his novel A Farewell to Arms was critically acclaimed for its realistic portrayal of war and disillusionment, rejecting its glorification. Other works include The Old Man and the Sea. He later died by suicide.
Edna St. Vincent Millay: Her poetry, like "My candle burns at both ends…" (from "First Fig"), symbolized the fast-paced, hedonistic, and ultimately self-destructive lifestyle of the 1920s.
Gertrude Stein: An American expatriate writer in Paris, she famously coined the term "The Lost Generation" to describe the disillusioned post-WWI generation of writers and artists.
H.L. Mencken and Sinclair Lewis: Both penned critiques of the conformity and materialism of the 1920s. Mencken, a journalist and satirist, mocked American provincialism, while Lewis, through novels like Main Street and Babbitt, critiqued small-town narrowness and middle-class complacency.
Overall Mood of Literature: Often characterized by disillusionment, cynicism, a critique of materialism, and a search for meaning in a rapidly changing world.
Harlem Renaissance
Overview: A flourishing of African American art, literature, and music centered in Harlem, New York City.
Writers:
Langston Hughes: Celebrated for his powerful poetry, including "I, Too," which expresses themes of racial pride, equality, and the deferred dream of African Americans. He believed in portraying Black life authentically.
Claude McKay: A key figure whose poems often addressed themes of racial injustice and resistance, such as "If We Must Die" and "Lynching," capturing the defiance and anger of the era.
Music (Jazz):
The Harlem Renaissance was synonymous with the rise of Jazz, which became a powerful cultural force.
Key Artists: Louis B. Armstrong, Duke Ellington, W.C. Handy, Bessie Smith.
Paul Robeson: A celebrated singer, actor, and activist.
The Cotton Club: A famous Harlem nightclub that showcased many Black performers, though often to largely white audiences.
Significance of Jazz: Provided a vibrant soundtrack to the era, fostered cultural pride, and served as a vehicle for artistic expression that crossed racial lines, though often with complexities.
African American Politics
Great Migration:
Reasons: Widespread movement of African Americans from the rural South to Northern cities seeking economic opportunities (industrial jobs, escape from Jim Crow laws, racial violence, and agricultural decline).
Consequences: Created new urban Black communities, led to cultural flourishing (Harlem Renaissance), but also increased racial tensions and competition for jobs/housing in the North.
Political Allegiance: African Americans largely remained loyal to the Republican Party, still viewed as the "Party of Lincoln."
Black Nationalism and Marcus Garvey:
Marcus Garvey: Advocated for Black Nationalism and a return to Africa, promoting racial pride and economic self-sufficiency.
UNIA (United Negro Improvement Association): Founded by Garvey, it was the largest Black mass movement in U.S. history, promoting racial solidarity and economic independence.
"Black Star Line" & Liberia: Garvey established the Black Star Line, a shipping company, to facilitate trade and potentially transport African Americans back to Africa (specifically Liberia).
Downfall: Garvey's movement faced charges of mail fraud, leading to his imprisonment and subsequent deportation, which largely dismantled the UNIA's organized efforts.