Reading And Writing- Assignment 2
Memoir & Personal Narrative Identity & Expression + Language can be used to express identity. + Identity: who you are/ideas about who you are + Language can also reflect culture. + Culture: groups of people who share common beliefs & lived experiences + Using your personal idiolect allows you to communicate, think, and interact freely with others. + Idiolect: your individual way of speaking and writing How We Use Language + Often, without even realizing it, we speak and write in different ways depending on the situation we are in and who we are around. + Colloquial: informal language; used in ordinary and familiar conversation; slang + Everyone has multiple ways of expressing themselves in speaking and writing. These are part of their identity. + Respect is integral to a shared human experience. Expressing Identity in Writing + There is NOT one "correct" "standard" way of communicating. + Your writing reflects who you are. Your writing should reflect your voice. + Different rhetorical situations call for different writing styles. + Rhetorical situations: instances of communication + How you write your essays vs. how you write a text to your friends + Regardless, there is ALWAYS space for your voice in your writing Exploring the Past to Understand the Present + Personal writing is VALUABLE!! + It allows you to make sense of the world as you, not others, experience it. + Two genres of this type are personal narratives and memoirs. They are considered creative nonfiction. + Genre: a category of writing that features compositions with distinct characteristics, styles, content, and formats. + Creative Nonfiction: the plot, setting, and characters come from real life Differences Between Memoir & Personal Narrative + Memoir: an account of certain incidents in a person’s life, often from a specific period of time; focuses on how the author remembers a part of their own life; from the French word mémoire + Personal Narrative: typically centers on one major event through which the narrator reveals thoughts, feelings, and possibly related experiences. + Personal writing relies on memory. + You use your memories and life experiences to help tell your story. + The overall message of the story should be about something bigger—a universal understanding, a lesson learned, a common human experience. + The more readers can relate to your story through the details you include, the more it will mean to them. The Cultural Aspect + You can use personal writing to explore cultural contexts. + Culture: shared customs, values, arts, and traits of a social group/group of people. + Culture is at the heart of personal narratives and memoirs. + Historical information, vivid details, and anecdotes all add value to your personal writing and help evoke empathy from your reader. + Anecdote: a short, interesting story or event told to demonstrate a point or amuse the audience. + Allows culture to be shared as a common human experience. Characteristics of Memoirs & Personal Narratives + A written series of photographs; snapshots of your life throughout time connected by a theme + Visual photo albums and written photo albums both use white space. + Allows readers time to think about what they are reading and draw their own connections to your writing. + Which events you include and how you include them will impact how the reader understands your story. + Memoirs and personal narratives share aspects with fiction. Storytelling Basics + How you construct your story is as important as the story you are telling. + Clarity of action leads readers to the theme or message you are telling in your story. + Plot and character development help bring clarity. + Narratives often follow a general structure called an arc to develop characters and plot and build the emotional impact of a story. + There are narrative and character arcs. + Narrative arcs are more plot-focused, while character arcs focus on the transformation of the individual. Narrative Arc/Plot Triangle in Detail + Narrative arc / Plot Triangle Components: • Exposition = introduce characters, setting, plot • Inciting incident = sparks conflict and engages readers • Rising action = more challenges and conflict • Climax = high point of action or emotion • Falling action = tension is decreased • Resolution = conflict is over & the conclusion Chronos & Kairos + Two important aspects of plot structure regarding time in a memoir + Chronos: the sequence of events told according to their order; can be told in order or out of order; helps develop themes by the telling of events. + Kairos: the Greek concept of timeliness; an argument made at the right time, often rooted in a cultural moment or movement; it happens at a specific time in order to make the biggest impact More Key Terms for Memoir & Personal Narrative Writing + Bias: the inclusion or exclusion of certain events and facts, the decisions about word choice, and the consistency of tone. All work together to convey a particular feeling or attitude. Bias comes from a specific stance or worldview and can limit a text, particularly if that bias is left unexamined. + Flashback: a scene that interrupts the chronological order of the main narrative to return to a scene from an earlier time. + Plot: the events that make up a narrative or story + Point of view: the perspective from which the story is told; usually memoir and personal narrative use first person, so the story is told through the eyes of the narrator. + Voice: the combination of vocabulary, tone, sentence structure, dialogue and other details that make a text authentic and engaging; the identity or personality of the writer ENG 101 Week 2 Vocabulary Words 1. Idiolect: your individual way of speaking and writing 2. Colloquial: informal language; used in ordinary and familiar conversation; slang 3. Rhetorical situations: instances of communication 4. Genre: a category of writing that features compositions with distinct characteristics, styles, content, and formats. 5. Creative Nonfiction: the plot, setting, and characters come from real life. 6. Memoir: an account of certain incidents in a person’s life, often from a specific period of time; focuses on how the author remembers a part of their own life; from the French word mémoire 7. Personal Narrative: typically centers on one major event through which the narrator reveals thoughts, feelings, and possibly related experiences. 8. Anecdote: a short, interesting story or event told to demonstrate a point or amuse the audience. 9. Chronos: the sequence of events told according to their order; can be told in order or out of order; helps develop themes by the telling of events Kairos: the Greek concept of timeliness; an argument made at the right time, often rooted in a cultural moment or movement; it happens at a specific time in order to make the biggest impact 11.Bias: the inclusion or exclusion of certain events and facts, the decisions about word choice, and the consistency of tone. All work together to convey a particular feeling or attitude. Bias comes from a specific stance or worldview and can limit a text, particularly if that bias is left unexamined. 12.Flashback: a scene that interrupts the chronological order of the main narrative to return to a scene from an earlier time. 13.Plot: the events that make up a narrative or story 14.Point of view: the perspective from which the story is told; usually memoir and personal narrative use first person, so the story is told through the eyes of the narrator. Voice: the combination of vocabulary, tone, sentence structure, dialogue and other details that make a text authentic and engaging; the identity or personality of the writer Description For this assignment, you will produce an 800- to 1000-word (roughly three to four pages, double-spaced) rhetorical analysis in which you analyze how an artifact (e.g., an image, advertisement, article, essay, website, speech) creates an argument by examining and explaining how the creator deploys rhetorical features, articulates a claim, and uses evidence to persuade an audience. In this assignment, you’ll pay attention to the rhetorical concepts we’ve discussed: ethos, logos, pathos, kairos, and the rhetorical situation (author, audience, setting, purpose, and text/format). As you are developing your analysis, consider the following: • The central claim or argument you want to convey to your audience about how the creator uses rhetorical elements to achieve a purpose and the effects of the creator’s choices; • The rhetorical elements in the artifact that most effectively demonstrate to your audience your claim or argument about the creator’s rhetorical choices and effects of those choices; • The purpose or goal of the artifact, what you discern the creator wants to achieve. Remember that rhetorical analysis does not engage what the creator argues - the creator’s position on a topic. Instead, it focuses on the how of the argument, the strategies the creator uses in making a case and persuading an audience. (For example, someone may begin a TEDTalk by emphasizing pathos, showing a dozen slides illustrating the consequences of a recent hurricane, but also call on ethos to establish credibility by noting her many years of involvement with international relief organizations.) Learning Objectives I have the following learning objectives in mind for this assignment: • You will put into practice and demonstrate an understanding of what you’ve learned about rhetoric, the rhetorical situation, rhetorical appeals, and rhetorical analysis; • You will create an analysis driven by a central claim about how the creator employs rhetoric and to what effect; • Your claim will be supported by relevant textual and/or visual evidence from the artifact you have selected for analysis. Production Details Aim for an analysis of 800 to 1000 words. Don't worry, however, if you get into this assignment and want to go further by writing more than 1000 words. The more you explore in terms of how a creator employs rhetoric in the artifact, the better understanding you'll gain of how rhetoric functions. You will first need to select an artifact for analysis. This choice is up to you, but I recommend that you select an artifact related to a cause to which you’re committed or about which you discussed in Assignment #1. Be sure to select an artifact that makes a clear argument and that uses rhetorical strategies in making that argument. Doing so will allow for a rich analysis. You might, for example, analyze a recent fundraising campaign poster, an audio or video advertisement created by an organization related to your cause, a letter to the editor of your a newspaper regarding a local political or social issue, an informational brochure distributed to voters in your community. Please note: You will need to create an image of the artifact or have access to a website on which the artifact appears. You will post that image or link to a relevant URL as part of your assignment. Your analysis will also include a short summary of the rhetorical situation that defines the artifact. Including this summary will help orient your reader to the analysis you’re undertaking. The summary should describe the artifact’s author, audience, setting, purpose, and format. You will likely include this summary of the rhetorical situation early in your analysis. The analysis will be driven by your own claim about the artifact. That claim (or thesis) will present and address what you believe to be the most important rhetorical features of the text and the effects of those choices on what you believe to be the rhetor’s purpose or goals. As you brainstorm about and draft your analysis, consider some of the following questions. You do not need to answer all of these questions, or even most of them. Choose questions that inspire you or are best suited to the artifact you have selected and the claim that you are making. Doing so will help you create an analysis that engages rhetorical appeals, the creator’s purpose, and the effectiveness of the choices the rhetor makes in reaching an audience: What motivates the creator to compose this piece at this particular time (kairos)? Is the creator responding to a particular context, argument, or text? • What is the creator’s purpose or goal? To express an opinion? Persuade or inform an audience? Explore an issue? Advocate for change? • Who is the creator addressing (audience)? • How does the creator use ethos? Pathos? Logos? • What claims does the creator make? Does the creator create claims based on a set of values? Propose policy? Do you believe the claims will be persuasive to the rhetor’s audience? Why or why not? • Does the creator use counterclaims? Refute those counterclaims? Make concessions? Are those refutations and concessions effective? Why or why not? • How does the creator use language to create a particular style or tone? • How do any visual elements contribute to the argument? Do the visual elements create a sense of pathos? Contribute to ethos or logos? How? To what effect? 6.2 What is the Rhetorical Situation? 6.2 What is the Rhetorical Situation? 6.2 What is the Rhetorical Situation? 6.2 What is the Rhetorical Situation? Robin Jeffrey, Emilie Zickel A key component of rhetorical analysis involves thinking carefully about the “rhetorical situation” of a text. You can think of the rhetorical situation as the context or set of circumstances out of which a text arises. Any time anyone is trying to make an argument, one is doing so out of a particular context, one that influences and shapes the argument that is made. When we do a rhetorical analysis, we look carefully at how the the rhetorical situation (context) shapes the rhetorical act (the text). We can understand the concept of a rhetorical situation if we examine it piece by piece, by looking carefully at the rhetorical concepts from which it is built. The philosopher Aristotle organized these concepts as author, audience, setting, purpose, and text. Answering the questions about these rhetorical concepts below will give you a good sense of your text’s rhetorical situation – the starting point for rhetorical analysis. We will use the example of President Trump’s inaugural address (the text) to sift through these questions about the rhetorical situation (context) Author The “author” of a text is the creator – the person who is communicating in order to try to effect a change in his or her audience. An author doesn’t have to be a single person or a person at all – an author could be an organization. To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, one must examine the identity of the author and his or her background. What kind of experience or authority does the author have in the subject about which he or she is speaking? What values does the author have, either in general or with regard to this particular subject? How invested is the author in the topic of the text? In other words, what affects the author’s perspective on the topic? Example of author analysis for the rhetorical situation: (President Trump’s Inaugural Address) President Trump was a first-term president and someone who had not previously held political office. He did not yet have experience with running the country. He is, however, a wealthy businessman and had a great deal of experience in the business world. His political affiliation is with the Republican party – the conservative political party in America. Audience Audience Audience Audience In any text, an author is attempting to engage an audience. Before we can analyze how effectively an author engages an audience, we must spend some time thinking about that audience. An audience is any person or group who is the intended recipient of the text and also the person/people the author is trying to influence. To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, one must examine who the intended audience is by thinking about these things: Who is the author addressing? Sometimes this is the hardest question of all. We can get this information of “who is the author addressing” by looking at where an article is published. Be sure to pay attention to the newspaper, magazine, website, or journal title where the text is published. Often, you can research that publication to get a good sense of who reads that publication. What is the audience’s demographic information (age, gender, etc.)? What is/are the background, values, interests of the intended audience? How open is this intended audience to the author? What assumptions might the audience make about the author? In what context is the audience receiving the text? Example of audience analysis for the rhetorical situation: (President Trump’s Inaugural Address) Inaugural addresses are delivered to “the American people”; one can assume that all Americans are the intended audience. However, Americans were divided at the moment of President Trump’s election, with some voters very happy that he was elected and others upset by it. Those opinions tended to split along party lines: Republicans tended to support Trump, whereas Democrats were critical of him. Republicans may be making the assumption that President Trump would be a great leader; Democrats were likely making the assumption that he would be a bad leader. As a candidate, President Trump (like all political candidates) spent most of his time in speeches trying to rally his base of supporters (his audience – Republican voters). In the inaugural address, he knows that his intended audience, his Republican base, is watching and listening with support. But there may be others who are watching his speech who are not a part of the intended audience, and as president, he likely wishes to engage and to reach out to even the Democrats who rejected him. Setting Setting Setting Nothing happens in a vacuum, and that includes the creation of any text. Essays, speeches, photos, political ads – any text – was written in a specific time and/or place, all of which can affect the way the text communicates its message. To understand the rhetorical situation of a text, we can identify the particular occasion or event that prompted the text’s creation at the particular time it was created. Was there a debate about the topic that the author of the text addresses? If so, what are (or were) the various perspectives within that debate? Did something specific occur that motivated the author to speak out? Example of setting analysis for the rhetorical situation: (President Trump’s Inaugural Address): The occasion of President Trump giving this speech is his election to the presidency. All presidents are expected to give a speech at their inauguration, therefore, the newly elected President Trump was required to give one. Purpose Purpose Purpose The purpose of a text blends the author with the setting and the audience. Looking at a text’s purpose means looking at the author’s motivations for creating it. The author has decided to start a conversation or join one that is already underway. Why has he or she decided to join in? In any text, the author may be trying to inform, to convince, to define, to announce, or to activate. Can you tell which one of those general purposes your author has? What is the author hoping to achieve with this text? Why did the author decide to join the “conversation” about the topic? What does the author want from their audience? What does the author want the audience to do once the text is communicated? Example of purpose analysis for the rhetorical situation: (President Trump’s Inaugural Address): President Trump’s purpose in the inaugural address was to set the tone for his presidency, to share his vision with Americans, and to attempt to unite the country and prepare it for moving forward with his agenda. Text Text In what format or medium is the text being made: image? written essay? speech? song? protest sign? meme? sculpture? What is gained by having a text composed in a particular format/medium? What limitations does that format/medium have? What opportunities for expression does that format/medium have (that perhaps other formats do not have?) Example of text analysis for the rhetorical situation: (President Trump’s Inaugural Address) Inaugural addresses are expected for each president. They are delivered in Washington DC – always in the same spot. The tone is formal. Inaugural addresses generally lay out a vision for the incoming president’s term. What is the Difference between an Audience and a Reader? What is the Difference between an Audience and a Reader? What is the Difference between an Audience and a Reader? Thinking about audience can be a bit tricky. Your audience is the person or group that you intend to reach with your writing. We sometimes call this the intended audience – the group of people to whom a text is intentionally directed. But any text likely also has an unintended audience, a reader (or readers) who read it even without being the intended recipient. The reader might be the person you have in mind as you write, the audience you’re trying to reach, but they might be some random person you’ve never thought of a day in your life. You can’t always know much about random readers, but you should have some understanding of who your audience is. It’s the audience that you want to focus on as you shape your message. The Rhetorical Tra Imagine a presidential candidate arguing in a televised debat domestic reform; figbting an uphill battle, the candidate caref hooses every word to reflect themes discovered hy months of polling. A family watching the debate changes the channel, flipping from station to station, and lands on a commercial for a luxury car. The commercial features images of a highly manicured couple sitting in an even more highly manicured leather interior. The message is clear: buying this car signals success and status to one's friends and neighbors. Earlier that day, a defense attorney argued passionately in front of a jury for a client who was probably guilty. Daydreaming, the client looked at the flag in the courtroom and nostalgically remembered when elementary school classes opened with the pledge of allegiance. What connects these seemingly unrelated events? In each instance, whether through media, direct address, memory, or otherwise, people are being persuaded to act, think, and do certain things through language or symbols. And that process, perhaps, at least in part, is what makes up the study of rhetoric. DEFINING RHETORIC What exactly is rhetoric? One of the persistent problems in defining and thinking about rhetoric is that people use the term in so many different ways. Consider this definition from The American Heritage Dictionary: Rhetoric, n.: la. The art or study of using language effectively and persuasively. b. A treatise or book discussing this art. 2. Skill in using language effectively and persuasively. 3a. A style of speaking or writing, especially the language of a particular subject: fiery political rhetoric. b. Language that is elaborate, pretentious, insincere, or intellectually vacuous: His offers of compromise were mere rhetoric. 4. Verbal communication; discourse. 1 The core idea behind each part of this definition is that rhetoric has something to do with the relationship between langnage and persuasion. You can see many examples of these variations of rhetoric if you look around a bit. Tune in to CNN or Fox News, and you will hear political pundits exchanging accusations that their opponents) statements or promises are "mere) ' rhetoric - that they are insincere or intellectually empty. In a public speaking class, you may learn that rhetoric is essentially about style, or the ability to present yourself and your ideas persuasively. In a communication studies journal, you may find rhetoricians (people who formally study rhetoric) using the term rhetoric to label the word choices, styles, and argument strategies in a speech, movie, Web site, or book. If you pick up a text by a philosopher who studies language, you may find a definition claiming that all language is "rhetorical"; that is, far from being simply about rules or syntax, language is always connected to a context, and people use language to figure out meaning within that context. Ironically, this definition is the opposite of the political talk show meaning of rhetoric: for the pundit attacking an opponent, rhetoric is false speech that doesn't match reality; but for some philosophers and linguists, rhetoric is reality. Rhetoric may be confusing at first because it can refer to all these things: empty words, a style of speaking, specific speeches or texts, a skill or knack, even language in general. But don't feel overwhelmed. In this Essential Guide to Rhetoric, we will sort out the various definitions and give you the tools to think about them. To begin, let's look at the two concepts most commonly associated with rhetoric: discourse and persuasion. A discourse can be any speech, written or spoken, as well as the exchange of symbols or meanings in any context: books, newspapers, pictures, movies, Web sites, music, and so on. Persuasion occurs when someone convinces you of something; it encompasses the dramatic experience of being moved to rage, tears, or action by a speech, as well as more subtle processes such as being influenced by advertising or political ideology. Rhetoric ties these two concepts together. In this book, we will define rhetoric as the study of producing discourses and interpreting how, when, and why discourses are persuasive. In other words, rhetoric is about how discourses get things done in our social world. Whether you study rhetoric only for its influence on speech or as a broad system of symbols and persuasion, this guide will explain the various branches of rhetoric and provide a base of knowledge for your particular understanding of the term. RHETORIC IN PRACTICE What does it mean that rhetoric is about getting things done in our social world? Think of it this way: there are a number of things you can do by yourself. You can choose to get up from where you're sitting, put this book down, yell, scream, or jump up and down. But more complex tasks require the cooperation of other people. For example, if you want to borrow notes for a missed class, get a political candidate elected, or convince people that they should do something about global warming, you need varying degrees of cooperation. Of course, you could achieve these goals by stealing notes for the class, physically forcing people to vote, or bribing lawmakers, but such approaches are risky, complicated, and illegal. So how can you get things done without using these sorts of tactics? More often than not, you can do so by getting other people to help you, usuałly by persuading them to take up your preferred course of action or point of view. Everything you do with other people involves their explicit or implicit cooperation, and cooperation requires an element of persuasion. In other words, political and social action at every level, from your family and closest friends to national and international politics, requires some form of cooperation and persuasion. Persuasion can be active (your attempts to convince a professor to change a grade) or passive (advertising's attempts to influence consumers to buy a product by featuring sexy images or promises of a better lifestyle). Persuasion might also target a specific goal such as "Vote for Proposition 56" or something more abstract like cultivating patriotism. Whether active or passive; specific or general; in the political, social, intellectual, or other spheres; persuasion is the key to coordinated action. Persuasion is the glue that holds people to a common purpose and therefore facilitates collective action. THE ORIGINS OF RHETORIC Of course, people were using words and symbols to influence one another long before the idea of rhetoric was invented. Yet at a certain point, thinkers began to wonder how this process happened and how they could talk about it more effectively. Although scholars don't know exactly where or how this came about, they do know that the term rhetoric originated in Athens, Greece, sometime around the fifth century BCE. RHETORIC IN ANCIENT GREECE Athens in the fifth century BCE was a bustling metropolis, and people from all over the Mediterranean area were immigrating there. The Greek city-state was experimenting with a new form of government - democracy, or rule by the demos, the "people." (At that time, people's political and cultural identity was tied to the city area in which they lived.) Today, we are used to the idea of democracy, but a new democracy requires many new social practices - such as how to resolve disputes without turning to an authority like a king, how to make laws by common consent, and how to decide which direction society should take. The citizens of Athens formed institutions to direct these processes: a senate, jury trials, and forums for public discussion. But people needed to learn how to navigate these new institutions. With no mass media, no printing presses, and very few written texts, the primary vehicle of discussion and information distribution was speech. The Athenians needed a strategy for effectively talking to other people in juries, in forums, and in the senate. In the fifth century BCE, a group of wandering Sicilians, who later became known as Sophists, started to teach Athenians how to speak persuasively with the goal of navigating the courts and senate. The name Sophists indicated that these speech teachers claimed to be purveyors of wisdom (sophia is Greek for "wisdom" and the root term for philosophy, or "love of wisdom"), and Sophists came to be the common term for someone who sold wisdom for money. Though it is not clear how or why this group became interested in teaching persuasive speech, we do know that as Athenian citizens relied more and more on public speech to deal with their new political processes, the market for sophistic training increased. Sophists were perhaps the earliest consultants: they offered training in winning legal cases, speaking persuasively in the forum, and arguing in public. Facility in speaking may have made an Athenian citizen more effective in winning over juries, and it may have been a prerequisite to democracy, but it also made people nervous.Why? Some feared that teaching people to be more persuasive meant that falsehood would prevail over truth-that highly trained speakers would defeat truthful opponents who were not as persuasive. Plato, a fifth-century Athenian philosopher, claimed that rhetoric was a disconnected set of techniques without a central ethical concern or philosophical system. For Plato, rhetoric was dangerous because it did not have the rigor of a scientific enterprise or the critical quality of a philosophical endeavor; rather, it was a group of random techniques that helped those in the wrong win support for their cause. However, Aristotle (384-322 BCE), a student of Plato and one whom many scholars credit with being the first theorist of rhetoric, disagreed that persuasive technique was only a way of making "the weaker case the stronger." Instead, Aristotle saw rhetoric as a techne-an art or technique-of human speech that could be both a coherent system for classifying, studying, and interpreting speeches and a skill for public dialogue. Aristotle argued three basic points: Rhetoric can be treated as a coherent area of inquiry. Rhetoric is not simply a collection of techniques for slick speech; it also has a logic and a purpose as the "faculty of observing the available means of persuasion in any given situation."2 In other words, by taking into account the specific qualities of an audience, a setting, and an occasion, an orator (or speaker) can figure out exactly what would be persuasive in that context. Rhetoric and logic are necessary counterparts. Rhetoric and logic (Aristotle and Plato called logic dialectic) are not opposites but mutually complementary and necessary counterparts: logic requires persuasion, and persuasion requires logic. The form and function of speeches are shaped by the possible speech goals. The logic and coherence of speeches are determined by their goals. To clarify this point, Aristotle classified different kinds of speech by their purposes: forensic (for use at a trial), epideictic (for use at a funeral), and deliberative (for use in the senate). He choose these types of speeches as the basis for his classification system because they have different goals and relationships to time and action, not because they are the only possible kinds of speeches. Let's take a closer look at the functions of each type of speech in the following table: ARISTOTLE'S TYPES OF SPEECHES Type of Speech Forensic From the Greek dikanikos, meaning "judicial" or "skilled at law": a speech that is given in a public forum, such as in front of an Athenian jury. Epideictic From the Greek epideixis, meaning "to shine" or "to show forth": a speech that displays the qualities of something. Deliberative From the term sumbouleutikos, meaning "to weigh" or "to consider": a speech that argues for a course of action. Purpose Example Justice: To determine what happened in the past, such as arguing for guilt or innocence. Honor: To say how people should feel in the present, and to assign praise or blame. Utility: To make a case for what people should or shouid not do in the future, such as avoiding harmful things and doing good. A lawyer's closing statement. A eulogy at a funeral. A debate over the passage of a law. Aristotle also created a classification system for rhetorical proofs, the ways of making speech persuasive. He divided proofs into three categories: logos (logic), ethos (credibility of the speaker), and pathos (emotional appeal). All three elements play a role in persuasion-a good persuasive speech needs to be attentive to the audience by applying logic, demonstrating the speaker's credibility, and appealing to the audience's emotions. (For more on proofs, see Chapter 4.) Whether or not one agrees with Aristotle's system, which may be too simplistic for the variety of speeches and speech acts that we see today, it definitely marked rhetoric as an important and systematic area of scholarly study and a central part of human political and social life. Aristotle demonstrated the possibilities for becoming more persuasive and figuring out what motivates people to action. RHETORIC ACROSS THE AGES Even though the Athenians were the first to fully theorize rhetoric, they were not the last to think about issues of speech, symbols, and persuasion. In the course of this text, we'll mostly refer to the modern-day study and uses of 8 PART I RHETORIC IN THEORY rhetoric while occasionally referencing other parts of rhetoric's history. But first, let's consider how rhetoric evolved from ancient Greece to the present day. Throughout the history ofthe Western world, many scholars, philosophers, and other intellectuals have returned to rhetoric. The following is a brief but by no means complete list of important rhetorical periods and figures: 1st century BCE. Cicero, a Roman orator, philosopher, and statesman, wrote extensively on rhetoric and specifically on oratory. (Cicero defined three kinds of speeches; see Chapter 3.) Quintilian, another Roman, also did work on rhetoric, concentrating on the idea of trope, which would become significant later. Basically, trope encompasses the different ways that a speaker can play with language-by using metaphors, vivid images, repetition, and so on (see Chapter 6). 4th century CE. Augustine of Hippo, a theologiaian and saint of the Catholic Church, picked up where the Greeks and Romans left off, arguing that philosophy and theology required rhetoric as a way of making truth intelligible to people who were not theologians or philosophers. 5th century CE to the 15th century (approximately). By the Middle Ages, rhetoric made up one-third of the required subjects in the humanistic arts. During that time, students in any respectable curriculum were required to learn Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric. 14th century CE to the 17th century (approximately). During the Renaissance, rhetoric flowered and rhetoricians turned to the arts of speech and letter writing as part of a new commitment to eloquence in the courts, palaces, and salons of kings and other leaders. Erasmus and Ramus were Renaissance humanists who expanded the rhetorical tradition. 17th and 18th centuries. Thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Giambattista Vico, and Hugh Blair became increasingly interested in the relationship among rhetoric, politics, human knowledge, and human nature. Even when people were not explicitly studying rhetoric, rhetorical processes were at work every time people spoke, wrote, or acted to persuade others. This rich history of academic theorization and everyday rhetorical practice became the basis for the contemporary discipline of rhetoric. RHETORIC TODAY Aristotle's book Rhetoric has been studied for more than twenty-five hundred years. Though modern society does not have public forums for resolving disputes in the same way Athenians did, the rhetorical concepts arising out of this tradition can help us think about our own times, challenges, and condition. Through the lens of rhetoric, we can gain important insights about the contemporary world in three important areas: identity and power, visual and material symbols, and the public and democracу. IDENTITY AND POWER Let's start by looking at the concepts of identity and power. What do we mean by identity? Say you are filling out a Facebook or MySpace profile. What kinds of questions do such Web sites ask, or what information might you offer to define who you are? You might include biographical information like your age and hometown, but you also might identify your sex, sexual orientation, race, nationality, religion, and so on. Your identity is the set of labels, patterns of behavior, and ways of representing yourself that make up your public persona. What does this have to do with power? Well, political power and social status are linked to the identity categories with which you affiliate-not just in terms of institutional representation (whether there are people who think, sound, and look like you in political office), but also in terms of how you move through the social world and are treated by others. Because rhetoric concerns the way that symbols and discourses are persuasive-how they influence our thoughts, habits, and actions-we can approach the question of identity by asking: How are specific discourses of identity persuasive? How do they influence public life? How do discourses of discrimination become widely accepted-that is, persuasive? How do people draw on their discourse of identity to cope with daily existence? Rhetoric helps us understand how certain identities are persuasive and why certain identity practices and labels seem to facilitate political power. Thus, even though the beginnings of rhetoric focused on the narrow context of persuasive public speech, rhetoric today can serve more broadly to help us think about issues of identity and power. VISUAL AND MATERIAL SYMBOLS Rhetoric can help us explore the visual and material world because, at its root, it is about discourses and symbols. We can gain a better understanding of modern life by exploring how visual symbols (things that we see) and material symbols (things that we physically interact with, like statues and monuments) persuade us to act, think, or believe in certain ways. Rhetoric can apply to a wide range of objects of study beyond speech; in fact, rhetoricians have studied the persuasive qualities of graphic design, advertisements, movies, Web sites, museums, monuments, graffiti, radio hosts, television, and so on. Rhetoric, as a technique, allows us to put each object into a critical (or interpretive) framework and ask the following questions: Who is looking at these objects? Where, when, and why are they looking at them? What political and social statements do the objects make? How do people react to them? Are the objects persuasive (do they do what they were intended to do)? The move to study visual and material symbols is an important branch of the rhetorical tradition, enabling rhetoricians to apply the basic rhetorical framework (audience, discourse, point of origin) to the visual and material elements ( especially in mass media) that affect our lives the most. THE PUBLIC AND DEMOCRACY If Athens was a young democracy that needed rhetoric to help its citizens with the public speech required by new social institutions, what does today's much older and more complicated democracy need from rhetoric? Today, rhetoric can be a way of exploring the relationship between communication and democracy in modern America. It can examine the ways that political messages (like campaign commercials), representations, and habits are constructed and repeated, and the reasons why such elements are persuasive for particular groups of people or voters. The questions of identity and power, visual and material elements, and the public and democracy represent some of the possibilities for rhetoric as a modern interpretive technique. Thus, as we work through the rest of this guide, we will refer both to the ancient problem of rhetoric and to some of its more contemporary applications. Lecture Notes: The Rhetorical Tradition
1. What is Rhetoric?
Definition:
According to Keith and Lundberg:
“The study of producing discourses and interpreting how, when, and why discourses are persuasive” (p.4)
Rhetoric = the use of language and symbols to get things done in the world.
Key elements:
Language and symbols
Purpose: to influence or persuade
2. What is Discourse?
Any speech or written communication, including the exchange of symbols or meanings.
Examples: books, articles, short stories, novels, movies, music, podcasts, etc.
Discourse is broader than just written text; it includes all forms of communication.
3. What is Persuasion?
Convincing people to think or act differently.
Central goal of rhetoric.
4. Origins of Rhetoric
Historical context:
Originated in Athens, around 5th century BCE.
Athens was experimenting with democracy (rule by the people, “demos”).
New democratic institutions (senate, jury trials, public forums) required effective public speaking skills.
Sophists: professional teachers who offered persuasive speaking training, often for money.
5. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) — The First Theorist of Rhetoric
Viewed rhetoric as a techne (an art or technique), not just persuasion.
Keith and Lundberg summarize Aristotle’s contributions:
Rhetoric is a coherent area of study.
Rhetoric and logic are linked and necessary counterparts.
Speeches are shaped by the orator’s goals (purpose).
6. Defining the Rhetorical Situation
What is it?
The context or circumstances out of which a text or discourse arises.
Key questions:
Why are we communicating?
Why do we need to persuade?
What motivates the communication?
7. Components of the Rhetorical Situation
Component | Definition | Notes/Examples |
|---|---|---|
Author | The person or group conveying the message | Can be an individual, organization, or collective |
Audience | The person or people being addressed | Consider demographics, values, interests; primary vs. secondary audience |
Setting | Time and/or place of the message | Context, environment, and motivating factors (exigence) |
Purpose | What the author wants to achieve | To make the audience think differently or act differently |
Text | The medium or format of the message | E.g., speech, article, video; each medium has unique affordances and constraints |
8. Applying the Rhetorical Situation: Case Studies
a. Lights, Camera, Plastic’s Poster & Videos
How to analyze:
Who is the author?
Who is the audience?
What is the setting?
What is the purpose?
What is the text/medium?
Consider what makes the message effective or ineffective.
c. Tiffany Johnson’s “Uncounted and Counting”
Artist/researcher honoring survivors of violence in Chicago.
Focus on survivors of violence against Black women, girls, and LGBTQ+ people.
Provides a space for collective response to violence.
Analyze rhetorical situation in relation to photo of Johnson & her exhibit.
9. Reflective Questions for Analyzing Rhetorical Situations
Who created this message and why?
Who is it intended to reach?
What social, cultural, or political context influences it?
What action or change is the author aiming for?
How does the medium affect the message’s impact?
Summary
Rhetoric is the study and practice of effective persuasion through language and symbols.
It originated in democratic Athens, where public speaking was essential.
Aristotle framed rhetoric as an art that includes logical reasoning and audience adaptation.
Understanding the rhetorical situation is key: authors, audiences, settings, purposes, and texts all shape communication.
Applying this framework helps critically analyze diverse messages and media.
English 101 – Rhetorical Strategies, Logical Fallacies & Thesis Statements
1. Rhetoric & Rhetorical Strategies
Rhetoric:
The craft of persuading through writing or speaking.
Rhetorical Strategy:
Techniques authors use to persuade their audience.
The 3 Building Blocks of Rhetoric
Strategy
Definition
Example from 9.1
Explanation
Ethos
Establishes credibility or authority to build trust.
Roommates have tried all pizzerias and have expertise.
We trust their judgment because of their experience.
Pathos
Appeals to emotions and feelings.
Emiliano’s pizza brings happiness; social pressure not to be left out.
Appeals to the audience’s emotions like joy and belonging.
Logos
Uses facts, reasons, and logic to support an argument.
Emiliano’s offers good value and leftovers.
Logical reasons to choose Emiliano’s based on facts.
Other Rhetorical Strategies
Personification:
Giving human traits to non-human things.
Example: “The cheese is calling out.” (Cheese can’t speak but is personified.)
Sensory Language:
Appeals to the five senses (taste, touch, sight, smell, sound).
Example: “A delicious, jeweled circle of brilliant color.” (Appeals to taste and sight.)
2. Logical Fallacies
Definition:
Flawed reasoning that can mislead or trick the audience.
Common Logical Fallacies
Fallacy
Definition
Example from 9.1
Why it’s flawed
Bandwagon
Argument that “everyone is doing it, so should you.”
“Everyone goes to Emiliano’s on Thursdays.”
Impossible that everyone goes every time; appeals to peer pressure.
Hyperbole
Exaggeration to make a point.
Emiliano’s has “a million things on the menu.”
Exaggeration; no place literally has a million items.
Ad Hominem
Attacking the person instead of the argument.
Accusing hesitation to join roommates as hostility toward immigrants.
Irrelevant and unfair attack on character.
Causal Fallacy
Incorrectly assuming cause-effect relationship.
Ate elsewhere → got the flu.
Correlation does not equal causation; coincidence.
Slippery Slope
Claiming one action will lead to extreme consequences.
Not ordering pizza → business bankruptcy.
Overstated consequence; unlikely direct cause-effect.
3. Kairos
Definition:
The importance of timing in persuasion.
Why it matters:
An appeal’s success depends on the moment and the audience’s current situation or mood.
Examples:
Tired of pizza or need to save money → less persuaded by pizza arguments.
Recent accidents on a highway → audience more open to traffic safety proposals.
4. Thesis Statements
Purpose:
Clearly identifies the topic and main points of the essay.
Placement:
Usually 1-2 sentences at the end of the introduction paragraph.
Role:
Keeps the essay focused and organized.
Rhetorical Analysis Thesis Statements
Characteristics of a Strong Thesis:
Avoid first person (“I believe,” “I think”)
Guides the essay for the reader
Takes a clear stand on the author’s strategies
States which techniques are analyzed and their impact
Strong Thesis Statement Examples
Jones effectively convinces his audience that stricter traffic laws need enforcement through statistics and emotional stories.
Although Myers uses historical facts for logical arguments, her sarcastic tone may cause readers to doubt her objectivity.
Mitchell’s attempt to advocate for safer community areas fails due to insensitive word choice and angry tone.
What a Strong Thesis Statement is NOT
Incorrect Type
Example
Why it’s weak
Simple Topic Statement
Abortion is a big issue in the U.S.
Too broad, no argument.
Broad Statement
The author claims abortion is a big issue.
No analysis or stand.
Statement of Facts
14 states have abortion bans.
Just facts, no argument.
Summary of the Work
Taylor Swift endorsed Kamala Harris on Instagram.
Summary, not an argument.
Statement of Intent
I will analyze how the author uses ethos, pathos, and logos.
Does not take a position or assert a conclusion.
IDiscourse: any speech, written or spoken, as well as the exchange of symbols or meanings in any context: books, movies, newspapers, websites, music, etc. 2. Rhetoric: the craft of persuading through writing or speaking 3. Techne: art or technique 4. Rhetorical proofs: the ways of making speech persuasive 5. Logos: logic and reason 6. Ethos: credibility of the speaker 7. Pathos: emotional appeal 8. Personification: giving an inanimate object human traits or abilities 9. Sensory language: language that appeals to the five senses 10. Hyperbole: exaggeration 11. Ad hominem: attacking the person, not the argument 12. Kairos: timing is important in trying to persuade an audience Argument & Persuasion Notes
1. What is Rhetoric?
Definition:
Rhetoric is the art of communication, specifically designed to influence people's thinking and actions through persuasion—not force or threats.
Purpose of Rhetoric:
To present arguments that appeal to reason and logic so audiences can decide for themselves what to believe or do.
Key Misconception:
Rhetoric is not about tricks or manipulation—it focuses on systematic, reasonable methods of persuasion.
2. Argumentation in Rhetoric
Rhetoric often functions in democratic contexts where audiences evaluate competing arguments.
The speaker assumes the audience has the right to decide and seeks to provide the best reasons for their argument.
3. Types of Persuasive Proofs (Aristotle’s Three Appeals)
A. Logos – Logic & Reasoning
Definition:
Logical structure and reasoning of an argument.
Two Types of Reasoning:
Formal Reasoning (Syllogism):
Deductive reasoning where two premises imply a necessary conclusion.
Example:
Premise: All students take courses.
Premise: All who take courses get grades.
Conclusion: All students get grades.
Non-formal Reasoning (Enthymeme & Example):
More practical for everyday persuasion.
Enthymemes
An incomplete logical argument where a premise is implied rather than stated.
Relies on audience knowledge to fill in the gaps.
Example:
“Bob is a student, therefore Bob is registered for courses.”
(Implied premise: All students register for courses.)
Types of Enthymemes:
Type
Description
Example
Sign
One thing implies another.
“He’s lied before, so he’ll lie again.”
Cause & Effect
One action leads to another.
“Too much partying causes students to flunk.”
Analogy
Compares different things to reveal similarities.
“A college education is like money in the bank.”
Examples (Paradeigmata)
Inductive reasoning—generalizing from specific instances.
Types of Examples:
Real Examples:
Based on facts, experience, or research.
E.g., Showing how a real AIDS education program was successful.
Hypothetical Examples:
Invented scenarios used when real examples aren’t available or effective.
E.g., “Imagine a student just like you, wrongly convicted and on death row…”
B. Ethos – Speaker Credibility
Definition:
Trustworthiness and character of the speaker.
Key Idea:
Audiences are more likely to accept an argument from someone they perceive as credible, fair, and knowledgeable.
Ways to Build Ethos:
Method
Description
Action
Referring to past actions (e.g., voting records).
Deeds
Pointing out significant actions (e.g., military service).
Understanding
Showing empathy and awareness of the audience’s beliefs.
Expertise
Demonstrating knowledge or education on the topic.
Note: Without ethos, even strong logical arguments may be ignored.
C. Pathos – Emotional Appeal
Definition:
Appealing to the audience’s emotions or state of mind.
Importance:
Emotional engagement frames how arguments are understood.
If the audience doesn’t care about a problem, facts may not matter to them.
How Speakers Use Pathos:
Choose language and metaphors that evoke emotion.
Use familiar examples that allow the audience to “see” the issue.
Align emotional tone with desired conclusion.
Example:
In a speech on animal testing:
One speaker may focus on human suffering to justify testing.
Another may focus on animal cruelty to oppose it.
Both use emotion to guide understanding of their logic.
⚠ Warning:
Excessive or manipulative emotional appeals can backfire and cause audiences to disengage.
4. Topoi – Tools for Discovering Arguments
Definition:
Common “places” or patterns of reasoning used to find arguments, regardless of the topic.
Origin:
Greek word topos means “place” → metaphorically refers to “locations” where arguments live.
Purpose of Topoi:
Helps speakers invent arguments when developing persuasive appeals.
Example (Restaurant Debate):
Even before knowing details, you could generate arguments based on:
Cost
Convenience
Quality
Variety
Past experience
By mastering topoi, you become better at crafting persuasive arguments across different situations.
Summary: The Building Blocks of Persuasion
Proof
What it Appeals To
Method
Logos
Logic & Reason
Syllogisms, enthymemes, examples
Ethos
Credibility
Character, habits, trust
Pathos
Emotion
Emotional language, relatable stories
Topoi
Argument Patterns
Common forms of reasoning
✍ Study Tips:
Look for all three appeals (ethos, pathos, logos) in any persuasive piece.
Practice identifying fallacies in arguments.
When writing essays:
Use logos to build your case.
Establish ethos through tone, clarity, and accuracy.
Apply pathos carefully to connect with readers.
Explore different topoi to strengthen your argument brainstorming process. Case Study: AI, Ethics, and Ethos in the Biden Robocall Incident
📰 Summary of the Event
Who:
Steve Kramer – a veteran political consultant who works on election campaigns.
What:
Kramer paid a New Orleans magician $150 to create an AI-generated voice that sounded like President Joe Biden.
When:
The fake robocalls were sent two days before the New Hampshire primary (Jan. 23, 2024).
Content of the Call:
Used Biden’s catchphrase “What a bunch of malarkey” and falsely claimed that voting in the primary would prevent voters from voting again in November.
Kramer’s Claim:
He said his goal was to “send a wake-up call” about the dangers of AI misuse, not to interfere with the election.
Legal Response:
New Hampshire officials are investigating possible voter suppression.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has since banned AI-generated voice robocalls.
Kramer has been subpoenaed and said he will cooperate.
💬 Key Quotes for Analysis
“Maybe I’m a villain today, but I think in the end we get a better country and better democracy because of what I’ve done, deliberately.” — Steve Kramerk
“I created the gun. I didn’t shoot it.” — Paul Carpenter (the magician who made the AI voice)
🧠 Rhetorical & Ethical Analysis,./m???>/tyy
Concept
Application in This Case
Notes
Ethos (Credibility)
Kramer claims moral credibility — says his intent was to warn the public.
However, his method undermines his ethos by using deception.
Pathos (Emotion)
Uses fear of AI abuse and concern for democracy to justify his actions.
Appeals to moral panic rather than factual reasoning.
Logos (Logic)
Logical flaw: saying deception is acceptable if it exposes deception.
Contradiction weakens his logical appeal.
Kairos (Timing)
Released before a major election → extremely sensitive timing.
Shows awareness of timing’s power, but creates ethical risk.
Ethical Fallacy
“Ends justify the means” reasoning.
Violates principles of honest persuasion and democratic trust.
⚖ Evaluating Kramer’s Ethos
Positive Claims (his perspective):
Experienced campaign worker → insider knowledge.
Claims moral motive: exposing AI dangers.
Sees himself as a “whistleblower.”
Negative Impacts (audience perception):
Used dishonest tactics (impersonating a president).
Spread false information that could confuse voters.
Undermined public trust in political messaging.
Violated the very principle of credibility he says he’s defending.
➡ Result: His actions destroy his ethos, regardless of intent.
Credibility cannot be built on deception — even for a “good cause.”
🌐 Broader Implications: AI & Rhetoric
AI voice cloning makes it easier to fabricate credible-sounding sources.
When the “speaker” is not real, ethos becomes artificial.
Audiences must learn digital literacy — verifying sources before trusting messages.
The FCC ban on AI-voice robocalls marks an attempt to protect democratic ethos in elections.
💬 Discussion / Essay Prompts
Ethos & Ethics: Can deception ever be justified if it exposes a larger truth?l,
How does this incident illustrate the erosion of credibility in the age of AI-generated media?
In what ways does Kramer’s case show the importance of ethical persuasion in democracy?
How does this event relate to Aristotle’s concept of ethos as character and habit? English 101 – Pathos: All About Emotion
1. What Is Pathos?
Pathos is the rhetorical appeal to emotion.
It focuses on how the speaker or writer makes the audience feel.
Pathos is tied to the emotional state of the audience — their “state of mind.”
The way an audience feels affects how they interpret and accept arguments.
Goal: Successful speakers/writers align the audience’s emotions with their message or argument.
2. The Audience & Their Emotions
Every audience brings expectations and hopes to a text, speech, or performance.
The speaker/writer/artist can make the audience feel a range of emotions (sadness, anger, hope, pride, etc.).
These emotions can help or hinder persuasion depending on how they’re used.
Even with strong ethos (credibility) and logos (logic/facts), an audience that isn’t emotionally engaged may not be persuaded.
Emotional connection often determines whether persuasion is successful.
3. How Pathos Is Used
Language: Choose words that carry emotional weight.
Examples & Illustrations: Use stories or situations familiar to the audience that evoke emotion.
Visuals: Images, videos, or symbols can strongly affect emotion.
Example: In an argument against animal testing, showing images of suffering animals can make the audience feel empathy and sadness — emotions that support your cause.
Ethical Use: Pathos is not manipulative if it’s truthful and supports your argument’s purpose.
4. Pathos Can Be Manipulative
Using emotion helps audiences trust and believe in your cause — but it must be done carefully.
Overusing emotional appeal (e.g., showing too many horrific or shocking images) can:
Overwhelm or disgust the audience.
Cause them to shut down emotionally and disengage from your message.
Avoid forcing emotions or making the audience feel they have no choice but to agree with you.
Balance is key — use pathos alongside ethos and logos for stronger, fairer persuasion.
5. How Far Is Too Far?
Ask yourself:
When does emotional appeal become disturbing or upsetting?
Is there a balance between ethos, pathos, and logos?
Is the emotional appeal appropriate for the audience and purpose?
Tip: If an image, story, or example feels exploitative or one-sided, it might rely too heavily on pathos.
6. Key Takeaways
Pathos = Emotion. It connects argument to audience feeling.
Effective pathos engages empathy, fear, joy, or anger to reinforce your point.
Unethical pathos manipulates or overwhelms the audience’s emotions.
Best practice: Blend ethos (credibility) logos (logic), and pathos (emotion) for balanced persuasion. English 101 – Logos: The Appeal to Logic and Reason
1. What Is Logos?
Logos is the rhetorical appeal to logic and reason.
It focuses on using clear, rational arguments supported by evidence and reasoning.
Aristotle’s Definition: Two types of reasoning help move an audience from one belief to another:
Formal Reasoning – Is the conclusion logically valid?
Informal (Nonformal) Reasoning – Uses everyday logic; may rely more on common sense than strict evidence.
2. Formal Reasoning and Syllogisms
Formal reasoning often uses syllogisms, a structured form of logical argument.
A syllogism uses two true premises (statements) to logically imply a conclusion.
If the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.
Example 1:
Premise #1: All students take classes.
Premise #2: All who take classes get grades.
Conclusion: All students get grades.
✅ Explanation: The conclusion restates information logically contained in the two premises.
Example 2:
Premise #1: All students work for grades.
Premise #2: Some of those students are tempted to cheat.
Conclusion: Some students are tempted to cheat.
Example 3:
Premise #1: Some students study hard.
Premise #2: No one who studies hard wants to fail.
Conclusion: Some students don’t want to fail.
4. When Syllogisms Don’t Work
Faulty Example:
Premise #1: No student wants to fail.
Premise #2: Some who don’t want to fail study hard.
Conclusion: Some students don’t study hard.
❌ Problem: The conclusion doesn’t logically follow from the premises.
The relationship between the two statements is unclear.
Logical errors like this are common in arguml/ents and must be avoided in writing.
🧠 Application: In rhetorical analysis, look for whether an argument’s logic is valid or flawed.
5. Alternatives to Syllogisms
When formal logic is too rigid, writers/speakers use enthymemes and examples.
a. Enthymemes
A simplified or implied syllogism.
Leaves out an obvious or commonly accepted premise that the audience already knows.
Example:
Statement: “Bob is a student. Therefore, Bob is registered for classes.”
Implied premise: All students are registered for classes.
Works best when the audience shares background knowledge or assumptions with the speaker.
b. Examples
Use inductive reasoning — drawing a general conclusion from specific cases.
Example:
Argument: A military draft would be unpopular in the U.S.
Supporting evidence: Historical examples of previous unpopular drafts.
⚠ If examples are unfamiliar or unconvincing to the audience, the argument loses effectiveness.
6. Real-World Example of Logos
The “It Gets Better Project”
A nonprofit supporting LGBTQ+ youth and suicide prevention.
Message: “My life got better, so yours will, too.”
Uses logical reasoning:
If others’ lives improved after hardship, it’s reasonable to believe yours can too.
Rise Against’s “Make It Stop” music video uses narrative and evidence (real stories) to appeal logically and emotionally.
7. Enthymemes and Common Patterns of Reasoning
Enthymemes often rely on patterns familiar to audiences:
Signs: One thing indicates another.
Smoke → fire.
Dark clouds → rain.
“He’s lied before, so he’ll do it again.”
Cause and Effect: One action produces a result.
“Students who party too much often fail classes.”
“Lack of sleep lowers exam performance.”
Analogies: Compare two things to show similarity.
“A college education is like money in the bank.”
“It’s wrong to boil live shrimp — just as it would be wrong to boil a person alive.”
8. Using Examples Effectively
Real Examples:
Facts, research, statistics, or personal experience.
Hypothetical Examples:
Imagined scenarios used when real examples aren’t available or relatable.
Example:
“What if a student, just like you, were in the wrong place at the wrong time?”
Helps the audience empathize and visualize the issue (e.g., death penalty debate).
9. Key Takeaways
Logos = Logic. Appeals to reason, structure, and evidence.
Formal reasoning (syllogisms) uses strict logic; informal reasoning uses common sense.
Enthymemes rely on shared knowledge; examples support reasoning through evidence.
Strong arguments blend logos with ethos (credibility) and pathos (emotion).
In rhetorical analysis, always ask:
Is the logic sound?
Do the examples make sense?
Are conclusions supported by valid reasoning? English 101 – Kairos: The Right Moment
1. What Is Kairos?
Kairos is the rhetorical appeal to timing, context, and opportunity.
It refers to finding and using the “right” or most opportune moment to deliver a message or argument.
The effectiveness of an argument often depends on when, where, and how it’s made.
🕰 Definition:
Kairos = the right time, place, and situation for making an argument.
“Strike while the iron is hot.”
2. Kairos in Our Daily Lives
We often experience kairos in small, personal ways — when something arrives at just the right moment.
Example: Hearing a song or reading a book that perfectly fits your current mood or situation.
These moments feel powerful because the timing amplifies the emotional and intellectual impact of the message.
3. The Opportune Moment
Kairos emphasizes the “when” and “where” of persuasion.
A successful argument depends on:
Tone – Is it appropriate for the current moment?
Structure – Is the message organized for the audience’s current mindset?
Timing – Is this the right time to speak or act?
A kairotic moment might occur when:
The opposing side makes a weak argument.
There is a social or political crisis.
The audience is emotionally or mentally open to your message.
Modern example: Things “go viral” when the timing and social context are perfect for mass engagement.
4. Benefits of Using Kairos
Inspires change and action when it’s most needed.
Creates opportunity during crisis or uncertainty — when people are ready to listen or act.
Allows a speaker/writer to take charge and fill a leadership gap.
Appeals to the current needs and emotions of the audience.
Helps you catch the audience’s attention while they’re still thinking about your topic.
Can even distract or redirect focus during moments of chaos or crisis.
5. Example: Amanda Gorman’s “The Hill We Climb”
Context: Written for President Joe Biden’s Inauguration (2021).
Gorman was struggling to finish her poem until the January 6th Capitol Riots, which inspired her to complete it.
Kairos: Her poem captured the emotion and urgency of that moment in U.S. history, making her message deeply impactful.
“So, while once we asked, how could we possibly prevail over catastrophe, now we assert, how could catastrophe possibly prevail over us?”
— Amanda Gorman, The Hill We Climb
📘 Analysis:
Gorman’s message of resilience and unity was perfectly timed for a divided nation.
Her performance was kairotic — it met the historical moment with the exact words people needed to hear.
6. Retorts & Comedic Timing
Retort: A quick, clever, and perfectly timed comeback or response.
Like kairos, a retort depends on timing and delivery — knowing exactly when to speak.
Famous Examples:
Adlai Stevenson (running against Eisenhower):
Woman: “Every thinking person will be voting for you.”
Stevenson: “Madam, that’s not enough — I need a majority.”
Winston Churchill:
Opponent: “Mr. Churchill, must you fall asleep while I’m speaking?”
Churchill: “No, it’s purely voluntary.”
Churchill & George Bernard Shaw:
Shaw: “Have reserved two tickets for opening night. Come and bring a friend — if you have one.”
Churchill: “Impossible to come to the first night. Will come to the second — if you have one.”
😂 Comedic Timing:
Knowing when a joke or comment will land best.
Sometimes a perfectly timed pause (silence) can enhance humor.
Example: Caitlin Clark & Michael Che on SNL’s Weekend Update — timing determines whether humor connects or falls flat.
7. Kairos in Rhetoric and Persuasion
To use kairos effectively:
Understand the context (social, political, emotional).
Read your audience’s mood and readiness.
Deliver your message when it will have maximum impact.
Bad timing can make even strong arguments fall flat.
Good timing can make a simple idea powerful and memorable.
8. Key Takeaways
Kairos = the art of timing.
Effective persuasion considers time, place, tone, and opportunity.
A message delivered at the right time can inspire, comfort, or provoke change.
Kairos works best when combined with:
Ethos (credibility)
Pathos (emotion)
Logos (logic)
Bottom line: The “when” of your message can be just as important as the “what.”