Comprehensive Study Notes on Ethics and Public Relations Models
Characterization and Definition of Ethics
Ethics is defined as the standards of conduct that indicate how one should behave based on moral duties and virtues.
It involves the evaluation of various dichotomies and tensions, including:
Right vs. wrong
Fair vs. unfair
Honest vs. Dishonesty
The conflict between these concepts (e.g., whether being honest is more important than being fair) leads to numerous questions with very few definitive solutions.
The Central Problem: The fundamental issue with ethics is that not everyone agrees on what constitutes ethical behavior.
Philosophies of Ethics: Consequentialism
Consequentialism is the philosophical idea that the "ends justify the means."
The determination of the "rightness" or "wrongness" of an action is based entirely on the outcome of that action.
Explanation: Lying to someone is not necessarily wrong if the purpose of the lie is to make that individual feel good.
Categories of Consequentialism include:
Utilitarianism: An action is considered right when it leads to the most happiness for the greatest number of people.
Happiness is defined as: .
Hedonism: This philosophy posits that pleasure is the most important factor in life.
The goal is to maximize .
It suggests choosing behaviors centered solely around pleasure, based on the principle that "you only live once."
Egoism: An action is considered right when it specifically benefits the individual performing it.
The focus is on looking out for oneself and maximizing one's own pleasure; the priority is the .
Altruism: An action is considered right when it produces the best result for everyone except for the actor.
This is the direct opposite of egoism. It requires considering only the happiness of others and disregarding one's own.
Philosophies of Ethics: Deontology
Deontology is the philosophy of justifying the ends by the means used to achieve them.
The "rightness" or "wrongness" depends on the action itself, not the consequence or outcome.
Key Principles:
It maintains that even if everything goes poorly, it can still be acceptable as long as the "right thing" was done.
Example: If you baked a cake for someone's birthday and they became sick from it, the act is still ethical because you meant well.
Behavior is the primary focus; if the behavior is good, that is all that matters.
It rejects the measurement of outcomes as being too complicated, opting instead to care only about righteous behavior.
Categories of Deontology include:
Divine Command: Determination of "rightness" and "wrongness" is dictated by the word of God or a higher being/calling.
Example: Behavior should strictly follow the Ten Commandments even if adhering to them causes pain.
Natural Rights: This view posits that humans are born with natural rights that should not be impeded.
One must behave within their own rights without impeding the rights of others.
Example: Individuals have a right to come and speak poorly (or "talk crap") on the campus because of these rights.
Kant’s Categorical Imperatives: This principle states that a person's motivation determines the "rightness" or "wrongness" of an act.
Revisiting the cake example: The act is right because the motivation was to be nice and not to cause harm.
Common phrase: "It’s the thought that counts."
Philosophies of Ethics: Virtue Ethics
Virtue Ethics measures ethics by the person performing the act rather than the act itself.
It focuses on the "bigger picture" of the individual as a whole versus individual isolated actions.
Categories of Virtue Ethics include:
Eudomonism: This refers to behavior that leads to "well being."
This includes what is good for ourselves, others, our health, and our spirit.
It equates to "living well."
It is not concerned with specific "good" or "bad" moments, but rather the broader way of behaving well over the entire course of a lifetime.
Agent-Based: Ethical behavior is seen as the product of common-sense choices made by individuals who possess and exhibit admirable traits.
Admirable traits include benevolence, kindness, compassion, etc.
It involves making common-sense choices guided by overall morals.
Four Models of Ethics in Public Relations
Attorney/Adversary Model: This model involves strictly advocating for your organization.
PR is viewed as analogous/similar to the legal profession.
Both lawyers and PR representatives act as advocates in an adversarial climate where both sides advocate for their respective clients.
It assumes that counterbalancing arguments will be made on BOTH SIDES.
There is no obligation to consider the public interest because the public is not paying the practitioner.
Two-Way Communication Model: This model suggests that the organization sends messages but also listens to the public.
Communication must travel bi-directionally between the client and the public.
The goal is to build trust with the public.
Practitioners must have an equal shared interest in the client and the public at large.
The interests of the public should be guarded and protected in a manner similar to the interest of the client.
Enlightened Self-Interest Model: This model involves looking out for the public interest at large because doing so is good for business.
This is associated with the model.
It posits that there is a competitive benefit to behaving ethically.
Prudent business owners preserve the interests of the public for the sake of long-term business success.
Responsible Advocacy Model: This model asserts that a PR practitioner is not just a representative but also a member of society.
Practitioners and their families are also affected by the actions of their corporation, a fact that cannot be ignored.
Metaphor: One "won’t poison your own pool for the sake of your organization."
It involves balancing advocacy with a social conscience.
A PR practitioner acts simultaneously as a corporate advocate and a member of society.
Priority should be given to the client UNLESS the action violates the interests of society.