Kohlberg: The Child as a Moral Philosopher (Key Concepts for Quick Review)

First of three levels of moral thinking; ages typically around $4$ to $10$ .
Stage $1$ : Orientation toward punishment and unquestioning deference to superior power. Good/bad judged by physical consequences.
Stage $2$ : Right action is that which instrumental… satisfies one’s own needs (and sometimes others’). Fairness and reciprocity are present but interpreted in a pragmatic, physical way.

Second level; also described as conformist. Maintaining expectations of family, group, or nation is valuable in its own right.
Stage $3$ : Good-boy-good-girl orientation. Behavior aimed at pleasing others and gaining approval; conformity to majority or “natural” norms.
Stage $4$ : Authority, fixed rules, and the maintenance of the social order. Duty, respect for authority, and upholding the given order for its own sake.

Third level; moral principles have validity apart from authorities or group acceptance.
Stage $5$ : Social-contract orientation. Rights and standards are considered; understanding of relativism of values; emphasis on procedural rules and democratic processes to reach consensus; law may be changed for social utility.
Stage $6$ : Orientation toward decisions of conscience and self-chosen ethical principles. Abstract, universal justice; dignity and rights of individuals; universal, impersonal moral judgments (e.g., gold en rule, categorical imperative).

Levels and stages form a typology of moral thought, defined independently of specific content.
Each level contains two stages; levels/stages are invariant and sequential: $Stage\ 1 \to Stage\ 2 \to Stage\ 3 \to Stage\ 4 \to Stage\ 5 \to Stage\ 6$ with no skipping (movement forward is possible; regression may occur but progression follows the sequence).
Content vs. form: content of moral decisions varies by culture, but the structure of moral reasoning (the levels and stages) is universal.
Preconventional to conventional transitions rely on differentiating, integrating, and universalizing concepts of value (e.g., life, rights).

Studies across Great Britain, Canada, Taiwan, Mexico, Turkey, and a U.S. sample show similar stage sequences.
Order of stage development is largely universal; rate of progression varies by culture and social class.
Stage $5$ (social-contract) is more salient in the United States at adolescence than in Mexico or Taiwan; content differences reflect culture, but structure remains.
Middle-class children tend to develop further and faster than lower-class peers; content differences do not alter the universal sequence.

Moral reasoning progresses as cognitive organization becomes more differentiated and integrated, yielding broader, more universal judgments.
People comprehend up to their own stage, but not more than one stage beyond; they tend to prefer the next stage.
Moral discussions or exposure to higher-stage arguments can move an earlier-stage individual forward.

Societies share basic institutions: family, economy, law, government; virtue arises from role-taking tendencies that underpin social institutions.
At higher stages, moral discourse resembles universal principles (e.g., justice) rather than culturally specific vocabularies.
Moral maturity relates to action: those who understand justice are more likely to act justly and influence moral climate beyond personal conduct.

Early researchers (Hartshorne & May) found no stable trait corresponding to virtues like honesty or self-control; behavior varied by situation and context.
The concept of ego-strength or will overlaps with moral action but does not capture the core of morality.
Kohlberg argues that moral reasoning develops through invariant stages and that moral education should engage higher-stage thinking.

The universal invariant sequence supports a structural account of moral development.
Content of moral decisions varies by culture, but the way people reason about moral problems follows a common progression.