Large Ruminant Production and Management Notes
Competitive Advantages of Beef Production
Increasing demand for beef due to higher income elasticity compared to other meats.
Ability to convert low-quality fibrous feeds into high-value protein.
Abundant supply of crop residues, especially on small farms.
Favorable climate for fodder production.
Availability of cattle production and meat processing technologies.
Constraints in the Cattle Sector
Low feeding base.
High financing costs for breeding operations.
High input costs.
Lack of infrastructure.
Competition for land use.
Changing policy guidelines.
Import substitutes, particularly carabeef.
Policy to unify and integrate the beef industry.
Types of Cattle Raising
Cow-Calf Operation
Raising cows and bulls to produce calves.
Calves weaned at seven to eight months.
Weaned calves sold or raised for replacement or fattening.
Challenging due to the need for familiarity with reproductive phenomena, breeding, and feeding systems.
Requires good management practices and animal health program.
Characteristics:
Uses grade Philippine cows and purebred bulls.
Sells calves as stockers, feeders, or slaughter cattle.
Extensive use of native pastures with minimal supplemental feed.
May be integrated with orchards or coconut farms.
Extensive System
Also known as ranching.
Animals maintained on vast open lands, often public lands leased from the government.
Limited by Agrarian Reform Law and peace and order issues.
Integration into Crop or Plantation Agriculture
Combined with crop or plantation agriculture.
Utilizes small vacant lots or spaces between crops for feed.
Animals fed by-products of agricultural crops or industrial wastes.
Plantation crops like coconuts or forest trees provide open spaces for grass growth.
Requires proper management of both cattle and trees for maximum benefits.
Intensive System
Animals confined and fed on a cut-and-carry basis (zero grazing).
Good pasture developed and maintained to ensure regular feed supply.
Supplemental feeding with concentrates is also practiced.
Long gestation period of 5 to 8 years.
Important for supplying calves for replacement or fattening.
Purebred Program/Breeder Farm Operation
Calves raised until ready for breeding, based on selection criteria.
Aims to produce breeder stocks for sale to other ranchers.
Uses purebred cows and bulls.
Requires large capital for animals, equipment, and better feeding.
Feedlot Fattening Operations
Important for the livestock industry due to:
Providing farmers with extra income.
Offering year-round work and use of cheap farm by-products.
Meeting the demand for high-protein food.
Objective: To add weight to the animal and increase its value.
Characteristics:
Returns from cattle feeding come from the difference between buying and selling prices, and weight gain.
Faster capital turnover.
Uses high-energy feeds for better finish and appearance.
Requires little area.
Located in areas with large quantities of livestock feed.
May be integrated with pineapple and sugarcane enterprises.
Backyard Cattle Raising
Also known as semi-subsistence or small holder.
Constitutes 92% of the total cattle population.
Characteristics:
One or two head of fattening or breeding cattle raised in spare time.
Animals tethered to graze around the home lot and supplemented with farm wastes.
Soiling and supplementing with ipil-ipil, rice bran, corn bran, or copra meal.
Force feeding (supa or supak) of feed mixture common in Batangas.
Breeder Farm Operations
Falls under the cow-calf operation.
Main interest is to produce animals for breeding purposes.
Calves raised until ready for breeding if they pass selection criteria.
Requires long years of experience and expertise.
Requires a large herd for the selection of replacement stocks.
Purebred animals are usually utilized.
Can be maintained in ranch (extensive), confinement (intensive), or integrated with plantation and forest trees.
Requires a large number of animal stock, a big farm, and large capital.
Growing-Fattening Operation
Most popular in the Philippines.
Involves raising newly weaned calves or culled mature heifers until ready for slaughter.
Requires simple facilities and management.
Shorter project period with higher return on investment (ROI) than cow-calf operation.
Growing stage (7 to 12 months) should be separate from fattening stage (3 to 5 months).
Growing cattle need simple care and management and can be raised extensively or intensively.
Fattening stage is usually done intensively in confinement with minimum movement.
Best handled by well-organized farms involved in feedlot operations.
Selection and Breeding
Cattle breeding is the application of selection and breeding systems.
Tools to improve the genetic makeup of the cattle herd.
Must be used together to maintain gains made by selection.
Selection
Process of deciding which animals will remain in the herd to become parents of the next generation.
May be done on the basis of:
The animal’s own phenotypic merit (visual appraisal and performance test).
Pedigree information and collateral relatives.
Progeny test (performance of the individual’s offspring).
Selection should be based on:
Comparable production records.
Physical characteristics (conformation, structural soundness, health).
Weaning weights of calves of the respective dams.
Weaning weights and yearling weights for bulls and heifers.
Weight and size of the breeding stock at two years of age.
Initial selection of bull calves should be based on weaning weight.
Final selection should be based on yearling weight.
Selecting for increased weaning weight should result in improving maternal qualities of the dam and the growth potential of the calf.
Selection based on birth weight can minimize calving difficulties.
Breeders can use specific measures of growth rates to monitor overall performance.
Important data: weaning weight at seven months (6-8 months) and yearling weight (at not less than 330 days).
Values should be compared in constant weight and separately for each sex category.
Period between weaning and final yearling weights should be at least 160 days.
Equations used:
Adjusted 210-day weight =
Adjusted 365-day weight =
If there is no birth weight record, the average birth weight (28 kg for Zebu crossbreeds) may be used.
Animals are ranked separately for each sex category in terms of weight ratios.
Ratio is calculated by dividing each animal weight by the average of its sex group and expressing it as a percentage.
Average weight is 100%; good animals are those above 100%.
Breeding Systems
Types of mating where desirable genes are made to combine in different ways by adopting one or more of the system of nonrandom mating.
Inbreeding
Mating of animals that are more closely related than the average of the population.
Most cattle raisers are familiar with the unfavorable effects of inbreeding, thus they reduces the animal’s vigor.
Affects growth rate, fertility, and viability of offspring.
Limitations: decline in vigor that almost always follows its use.
The trait affected most adversely by inbreeding are those of the greatest importance from the economic standpoint, such as size and fertility.
Effects:
Marked decrease in fertility
Reduces vigor
Decrease in growth rate of offspring
Reduces viability of the offspring
Close Breeding
Mating of close relatives (e.g., father-daughter, son-mother, sister-brother).
Line Breeding
Breeding of not so close relatives (e.g., cousins).
A mild form of inbreeding designed to concentrate the genes of a certain ancestor in the progency.
Strain Breeding
Very mild form of inbreeding which leads to increase homozygosity within the strain in the long term.
Crossbreeding
Mating of animals from two or more established purebreds.
Commercial breeders use crossbreeding to take advantage of complimentarity and hybrid vigor (heterosis).
Classified into upgrading and systematic crossbreeding.
Upgrading
Mating of purebred sires to nondescript or native females and their female offspring generation after generation.
The first generation will have a breed composition of 50% exotic; the second generation, 75% exotic, etc.
The usefulness or success of grading will mainly depend on the choice of the exotic breed of sire in relation to its adaptability to the conditions where the offspring will be raised.
Grading up to 75% exotic is suitable in terms of retention of heterosis and infusion of exotic genes.
Systematic Crossbreeding
Classified into terminal crossing and rotational crossing.
*Terminal crossing. The crosses procedure are not used for breeding and are sold as slaughter animals.
Terminal Crossing
Crosses are not used for breeding and are sold as slaughter animals.
Types:
Single cross: crossing two purebreds to produce the *The amount of heterosis is maximum in the
Difficult to maintain beyond the first generation due to the need for large base herds of two purebreds.
Three-way cross and backcrossing: the s are mated to a third breed (three-way) or back to one of the sire breed (backcross). *In the three-way cross, 100% of the heterosis in the is retained while in the backcross, 50% is retained.
When breed sires to of a third breed, they produce highly-productive and acceptable market-quality calves.
Rotational Crossing
Requires the retention of selected crosses for use in subsequent rotational breeding in each generation.
Types:
Crisscrossing (reciprocal backcrossing): The two purebreeds are alternately used in each generation and at equilibrium (about five to six generations), two-thirds of ’s hybrid vigor is retained.
Three-breed rotation: A third breed is used as in the case of the three-way breed crossing, except that the use of the three purebred sires is rotated in subsequent generations. The offspring produced at equilibrium will have retained 87.5% of the amount of heterosis in the s.
Production of Synthetic Breeds
Synthetic populations are produced by intersemating (or mating among themselves) or backcrossing the F crosses to the superior breed.
The process is repeated in subsequent generations by using selected F process.
50% of heterosis is retained in the mating of the second generation, and 37.5% in the third generations.
The F crosses are stabilized at 50:50 breed composition to produce the synthetic population.
Things to Consider in Crossbreeding
In choosing a breed to be crossed, consider not only the animal’s strong attributes but also its weaknesses.
Crossbreeding will produce good, well-nourished calf crop at weaning, with excellent growth rate as slaughter animals.
Choice of breeding Systems
No best breeding system is universally applicable at all times to a beef cattle herd.Decisions on the selection of breeding systems must be based on the following fators: functions of the operation, size of the operation, feed resources, and maintenance of heterosis.
Functions of the Operation- If the operation is on commercial basis, then grading up or crossbreeding would be most appropriate. Production of F slaughter animals can be achieved by the continuous single crossing or systematic crossing, to take advantage of heterosis in the crosses. For breeders of purebred stock, continuous outcrossing or linebreeding is preferred.
Size of Operation- This is especially important for small-sized herds, such that intense inbreeding may occur. The harmful effects of inbreeding could affect the overall performance of the herd. Feed Resources- Environmental constraints especially on available feeds must be considered in relation to the genetic potential of the crosses. Maintenance of Heterosis Crisscrossing and rotational crossing can maintain as much heterosis as in the F crosses. However, problems of maintaining several purebreds and herds must be considered.
Best breeding system for beef cattle is systematic crossbreeding
Controlled Breeding
Means keeping the bull with the cows for a specific period (2-3 months) and then removing the bull for the rest of the year.
Advantages:
Bulls kept in good condition.
Calving can be timed for adequate feed for nursing cows.
Cows calve in short intervals, resulting in uniform-age calves.
Shy breeders can be easily identified and culled.
Performance of the herd bull can be easily evaluated.
Choosing the calving period is a critical management decision based on:
Animal growth rate and reproduction performance.
Pasture availability and feed quality.
Market to be supplied.
Management practices (stocking rate and supplementary feeding).
Season of maximum fertility.
Basic consideration: availability of feed.
Requires analysis of rainfall pattern.
Activities to time:
Fertility testing of bull (2 months before breeding).
Flushing period of cow and bull (1 month before breeding).
Mating (60 days after mating).
Pregnancy diagnosis (3 months after end of breeding season).
Culling of empties and poor breeders.
Identification of calves.
Weaning of calves (6-8 months after calving).
Branding and castration (1-3 months after weaning).
Growing and replacement stocks (6 months after calving)
Pasture improvement (6 months after calving)
Random Mating- this means each possible mating in a population has the same probability or occurrence
Mating
In hand mating- a cow in heat is brought to the bull or the bull is brought to the cow in heat. After breeding, the two are separated. In this system the service of the bull is fully controlled.
Pasture mating- the bull is brought in and goes with the herd of breeding heifers and cows even during the breeding season. This system gives the bull full freedom to detect and breed a heifer or cow in heat.
Breeds of Beef Cattle
Differ significantly in features and traits.
No breed is superior, but some are more popular.
True value determined through careful evaluation of the environment.
Some breeds specialized for beef alone, others are dual-purpose (milk-beef or beef-milk), and some are triplets types (draft-milk-beef).
Breed points are specific details of the breed e.g., color, horn formation, length and shapes of ears, color of switch(tail-end), white-faced, that identify the breed.
Two Types of Cattle
The humped cattle (Bos indicus) include the Zebus from India, Pakistan, Southeast Asia, and some islands in the pacific. They are also known as tropical breeds
The humpless cattle (Bos Taurus) are temperate breed of Europe and Northern Asia
BREEDING AGE
Properly grown breeding heifers are usually bred at two years of age
Properly grown bulls on the range bred at 2 year old
Temperate Breeds
France: Charolais, Limsousin, Maine-Anjou, Tarenaise
Switzerland: Simmental, Brown Swiss
Italy: Chianina, Marchigiana, Ramagnola
United Kingdom: Beef Shorthorn, Hereford, Angus, Devon
Germany: Gelbvieh
Tropical Breeds
India: Guzerat, Gir, Kankrej, Hariana, Krishna, Valley, Ongole (Nellore)
Pakistan: Red Sindhi, Tharparkar, Bhagnari, Sahiwal
Africa: Boran, Tuli, Nguni, Ankole, Fulani, Africander
Stabilized Breed and Strains from Crossbred Foundations
Santa Gertrudis: 5/8 Shorthorn, 3/8 Brahman
Brahman: Mixture of Guzerat, Nellore, Krishna Valley, and Gir
Indu-Brazil: Zebu admixture
Beefmaster: 1/2 Brahman, 1/4 Hereford, 1/4 Shorthorn
Brangus: 5/8 Angus, 3/8 Brahman
Red Brangus: 5/8 Red Angus, 3/8 Brahman
Braford: 5/8 Hereford, 3/8 Brahman
Charbray: 5/8 Charolais, 3/8 Brahman
Droughtmaster: 3/4-7/8 Shorthorn, 1/4-1/8 Brahman
Murray Grey: Angus bull by roan Shorthorn cow
Belmont Red: 1/2 Africander, 1/4 Hereford, 1/4 Shorthorn
Mandalong Special: Charcolais, Chianina, Poll Shorthorn, British white and Brahman.
Simford: ½ Simmental, ½ Hereford
Simbrah: -minimum of a 3/8 Simmental and ¼ Brahman and not over 3/8 maximum of other breeds
Purebred Simbrah: 5/8 Simmental, 3/8 BrahmanBeefalo: -3/8 Bison 3/8 Charolais, 2/8 Hereford
PHILIPPINE BREEDS
Batangas Breed, Large type Ilocos Steer, Smalll type Ilocos, Iloilo Type
*In the Philippines, Brahman and its derivatives are recommended because of its adaptability
Imported Breeds
Aberbeen Angus
Africander Cattle: Reddish shade and white spots .It's are good rangeland rustlers
BeefMaster Cattle: No specific color; Large and horned , rapid growth rate; Good rangeland rustlers.
Belmont Red, Braford, Brahman, Charolais and Hereford cattle
Reproduction
Properly-grown breeding heifers should weigh at least 250-300 kg when bred. Grades, for example, Grade are bred at two years old however a well- developed 18 to 20 month exotic breeds like American Brahman bulls should weigh at least 300 kg when bred
Estrus Cycle
Bull and Heifer calves reach puberty or age of sexual maturity at six to eight month. Sexually mature undergoes periodic heat cycles ( estrous cycle) which run from 18 to 24 days or an average of 21 days. The cow, shortly before the heat period (estrus), isolates herself from the rest of the herd.
Heat Period signs:
*Reddening and swelling of the vulva
*Restlesness and Frequent urination
Estrus normally lasts from 14 to 18 hours in exotic breed. Indigenous and zebu grades have shorter estrus period which usually lasts from 10 to 12 hours
Ovulation happens ton hours after end of estrus otherwise when the cow is sick they don't have appettie to eat in heat
Visible Signs of approaching Calving
Visible signs of approaching calving are as follows:
• Relaxation of ligaments around the tailhead
and pelvis
• Swelling of vulva and thick mucous discharge
•The cow’s udder becomes congested with milk
Cattle have an average number of services per conception of 1.6% or 62.5% based on the first service.
Postpartum Physiology
A minimum interval of 60 days between calving and first insemination after calving (postpartum breeding) is recommended to permit uterus involution
Natural mating.
There are two types: hand mating and pasture mating in which a bull brought to a cow for service. For two to three months, an 18-month old bull can sire 12 to 15 cows; a two- year old bull, 20-25 cows; a three-year
old bull or older, 40 to 50 cows.
Fertility of a bull usually starts to decrease at five years old the replacement rate is one bull yearly.
Artificial insemination
As discuss earlier visible signs are exhibited by in heat cows and heifers These signs are best observed when most animals are at ease resting, ruminating, or just browsing in the pasture or corral.
Insemination Time: A gloved hand the animal is ready to be inseminated, a drop of the discharge should be placed between the thumb and the index fingers. If the discharged should be placed between the thumb and the index fingers, if the discharged can be stretched at a distance of about 10 cm without breaking, the cow is in heat and ready.
Other AI requirements:
Only heifers in good condition with regular heat cycles must be on AI service
Herd must be Reproductive disease free such as brucellosis
Heat synchronization using Prostaglandin.
Embryo Transfer:Induce treatments for donor cows and insemination to surrogate, then transfer to surrogate dams to synchronize their status to receive the embryos.
Nutrition - Nutrients are chemical compounds used by the animal for maintenance and production. The basic classes of nutrients are water, carbohydrates, lipids, protein, minerals, and vitamins. The kind and amount of nutrients required by an animal are determined by its physiology activities. Description of several physiological activities and nutrients required are as follows:maintenance, growth, reproduction, lactation
Minerals- are in organic compounds in the body. Mineral elements are generally divided into two categories: macrominerals(required in relatively large amounts) - Calcium and microminerals or trace minerals (required in very small amounts)- Copper. Vitamins, Protein, Carbohydrates, Lipids and Water.
WATER IS MOST IMPORTANT NUTRIENT. Its intake by cattle. The animals need the following nutrients. DRY MATTER that satisfies the animal’s appetite and promotes good digestion. To estimate the daily feed requirement, young fatteners consume about 3% of their body weight in air-dry feed
Feed Resources Consists of
*Pasture
*Crop Residues
*Agro Industrial By- Products
These depend on Cropping Pattens in the region
Nutrient Requirements of beef cattle:
the amount of dry matter, energy ( total digestible nutrient of TDN), total protein, calcium and phosphorus required daily for maintenance, growth, reproduction, lactation.
Feeding Sytems: All Roughage or Combination
*Ration - the choice depends on the animals
All- Roughage Feeding Systems
During summer the crop can be fed using available silage, hay or crop residues
*High Level energy in the feeding ration during hot seasons. Combination feeding is the energy rich-concentrate
s supplemented with needed roughtage
There are considerations for feed conservation
Roughe & Concentrate
Fead gradually to microorganisms
Urea in Cattle Rations:
All animals require protein for normal growth and body tissue development.
1) Urea, biuret, diammonium phosphate, and ammonium chloride are the common sources of NPN to incorporate into cattle ration.
2) Commercial fertilizer grade urea contains 45% nitrogen that is calculated into 281crude protein equivalent
When using urea to replace expensive protein sources to formulate feed formulation consult: Feed supplements and Water-urea- molasses mixture
During summer months where molasses is readily available, a water-urea- molasses mixture with a maximum of 10% urea may be used as a lick, with proper precaution.to supply protein adequately
Precaution: It can cause ammonia toxicity and affect normal growth
Strictily monitor and follow veterinarian
All- Roughage Feeding Systems. All- roughage, or combination of roughage
Good grazing is the key for profitable cattle raising, that is feeding in pasture that enables all the feed nutrients for maintenance that is needed for: Growth, reproduction for best animal productivity
UTILIZATION OF DRY RATION:
*To consider: feed materials base
Cattle can be fattened on all roughage in a grass land if supplemented
*Cattle grazes grass
Legumes mixtures (restricting animal movement)
There is maximum dry matter intake if the ration has only about 34% moisture content In the Raining Seaon.
Cattle can consume feed at a rate of about 2.5% of its body weight.
Nutrition for: Dry Matter, Water(most important), Protein, Minerals, Vitamins - to consider the following equation
Roughage-Concentrate Ration is the combination of forage of farm by- products and concentrates such as:
Rice ban, copra meal, ipil-ipil leafmeal and corn by- products, including meat and bone meal and salt Utilized farm by products recipe and added to toal ration
Pasture Management Is grazing control of animals. This leads to grazing benefits: Herding animals, Fertile soil preservation, Fresh animal growth, Controlled parasite
Common pasture and grassland plant species Grasses include: Panicum, Napier
Legumes include: Centrosema
Herd Management: that ensures the appropriate nutrition based on various age groups requirements- directly related to age and farm infrastructure for appropriate care management
Herd Division: Separate Pregnancy, Heifer, Steer and Bull Group.
Lactating and Pregnant Cows must be grouped apart:
Cessation of Heat and Palpitation: signs of pregnancy but not foolproof
Open for non pregnant cows and replacement heifers/calves should be given proper care
to meet the standard requirement set for production
Growers: Are weightnerd and requires minimal attention, can be maintained in pasture and mineral supplement.
Fatteners: That requires shorter feeding period to reach slaughter wait for economic production
Management of Breeding Bulls :
Select for breading good bulls must can contribute and be aggressive, also must have supplemental feeding before/after breeding
A good way to test breeding is measuring
testicular circumference
of the young bull . Minimum
measurement
of 30 cm for a yearling
The following is not recomended when animals have hereditary defects as shown:
Inverted treats , Failure of of one or both of the testes, Hernia . or Heifers that are not in heat after mating
###Grazing Management: That allows and sustain sound of livestock farming and increase meat yield
Factors that affect livestock environment: Climate /Rainfall pattern . Herbage surplus should distributed and improved
A feasible (cogon) pasture for the stocking rate needs 3-4 Ha of agriculture land area needs improve pasoture ( para & legumes fertilization rate (with 2 A.U )with an appropriate balance in diet
A WORKING CORRAL HAS: ➢ Fences
✓Proper Gate and Land space (level and free from hazard/disaster)
✓ DIPPING VAT essential for Tick and external parasite control. If 200 au or more justifies dipping . Smaller is economically less. A GOOD ECONOMICS STRUCUTRE NEEDED
✓ One of the basic tools and an important piece of equipment in the cattle business is weighing scale, a scale allows efficient farming!
Loading chute. should have proper height according to terrain setting
A good feeding facilitate must consider:\
labor effieicny & bad weather and feeding trough locations
HOUSING SYTEMS:
1 Small Scale backyars / ranching level has simple methods, animal are teathered at night by tree or pole and water sourse availability and is located near home
A good housing systems requires building that protect and allow natural air
have ventilation structure and easy for farm assistance
and cleaning