Christopher Columbus arrived in the New World in 1492.
His arrival marked the beginning of the Contact Period, during which Europe sustained contact with the Americas.
The period ends in 1607 because that is the year of the first English settlement.
Permanent Settlements
The spread of maize cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond supported economic development.
Along the Northwest coast and in California, tribes developed communities along the ocean to hunt whales and salmon, totem poles, and canoes.
European Exploration in the Americas
Columbus Sails Circa 1492
New ships, such as caravels allowed for longer exploratory voyages.
In August of 1492, Columbus used three caravels, supplied and funded by the Spanish crown, to set sail toward India.
After the voyage, they reached land and found a group of people called the Taino and renamed their island San Salvador and claimed it for Spain.
The Age of Exploration
Columbus' voyage pleased the Spanish Monarchs.
Other European explorers also set sail to the New World in search of gold, glory and spread the word of their God.
Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest
The Columbian Exchange
Period of rapid exchange of plants, animals, foods, communicable diseases, and diseases.
Europe had the resources and technology to establish colonies far from home.
Flow of Trade
Old World to New World: horses, pigs, rice, wheat, grapes
New World to Old World: corn, potatoes, chocolate, tomatoes, avocado, sweet potatoes.
Colonization
A colony is a territory settled and controlled by a foreign power.
Native vs. European Views
Native Americans
Regarded the land as the source of life, not as a commodity to be sold.
Thought of the natural world as filled with spirits. Some believed in one supreme being.
Bonds of kinships ensured the continuation of tribal customs. The basic unit of organization among all Native American groups was the family, which included aunts, uncles, cousins, and other relatives.
Assignments were based on gender, age, and status. Depending on the region, some women could participate in the decision-making process.
Europeans
Believed that the land should be tamed and in private ownership of land.
The Roman Catholic Church was the dominant religious institution in western Europe. The pope had great political and spiritual authority.
Europeans respected kinship, but the extended family was not as important to them. Life centered around the nuclear family (father and mother and their children).
Men generally did most of the field labor and herded livestock. Women did help in the fields, but they were mostly in charge of child care and household labor.
Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System
Introduction of Slavery in the American Colonies
Extensive use of enslaved Africans began when colonists from the Caribbean settled the Carolinas
Until then, indentured servants and, in some situations, enslaved Native Americans had mostly satisfied labor requirements
Challenges with Enslaving Native Americans
They knew the land, so they could easily escape and subsequently were difficult to find
In some Native American tribes, cultivation was considered women’s work, so gender was another obstacle to enslaving the natives
Europeans brought diseases that often decimated the Native Americans, wiping out 85 to 95 percent of the native population
Turn to Enslaved Africans
Southern landowners turned increasingly to enslaved Africans for labor
Unlike Native Americans, enslaved Africans did not know the land, so they were less likely to escape
Removed from their homelands and communities, and often unable to communicate with one another because they were from different regions of Africa, enslaved Black people initially proved easier to control than Native Americans
Dark skin of West Africans made it easier to identify enslaved people on sight
The Slave Trade
Majority of the slave trade, right up to the Revolution, was directed toward the Caribbean and South America
More than 500,000 enslaved people were brought to the English colonies (of the over 10 million brought to the New World)
The Middle Passage
Shipping route that brought enslaved people to the Americas
It was not unusual for one-fifth of the Africans to die on board
End of the Atlantic Slave Trade
Mounting criticism (primarily in the North) of the horrors of the Middle Passage led Congress to end American participation in the Atlantic slave trade on January 1, 1808
Slavery itself would not end in the United States until 1865
Slavery in the South
Flourished in the South due to nature of land and short growing season
Chesapeake and Carolinas farmed labor-intensive crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo
Slavery in the North
Did not take hold in the North the same way it did in the South.
Used on farms in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.
Used in shipping operations in Massachusetts and Rhode Island.
Used as domestic servants in urban households, particularly in New York City
Northern states would take steps to phase out slavery following the Revolution.
Still enslaved people in New Jersey at the outbreak of the Civil War
Cultural Interactions Between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans
The Birth of a New Society
Under Spain's encomienda system, the crown granted colonists authority over a specified number of natives
Colonist was obliged to protect those natives and convert them to Catholicism
In exchange, the colonists were entitled to those natives' labor for such enterprises as sugar harvesting and silver mining.
This system sounds like a form of slavery because it was a form of slavery.
Competition for Global Dominance
Navigational Advancements
Improvements in navigation, such as the invention of the sextant (navigates with the altitudes of the stars) in the early 1700s, made sailing across the Atlantic Ocean safer and more efficient.
Joint-Stock Companies
Intercontinental trade became more organized with the creation of joint-stock companies, corporate businesses with shareholders whose mission was to settle and develop lands in North America
The most famous ones were the British East India Company, the Dutch East India Company, and later, the Virginia Company, which settled Jamestown.
Enslavement and African Adaptation
Explorers, such as Juan de Oñate, swept through the American Southwest, determined to create Christian converts by any means necessary—including violence
Some, such as the Maroon people, even managed to escape slavery and form cultural enclaves
Slave uprisings were not uncommon, most notably the Haitian Revolution
English Attempts to Settle North America
England’s first attempt to settle North America came a year prior to its victory over Spain, in 1587, when Sir Walter Raleigh sponsored a settlement on Roanoke Island (now part of North Carolina).
The colony had disappeared by 1590, which is why it came to be known as the Lost Colony.
There was “Croatian” on a tree
The English did not try again until 1607, when they settled Jamestown.
Jamestown and the Virginia Company
Jamestown was funded by a joint-stock company, a group of investors who bought the right to establish New World plantations from the king
The company was called the Virginia Company—named for Elizabeth I, known as the Virgin Queen—from which the area around Jamestown took its name.
The settlers, many of them English gentlemen, were ill-suited to the many adjustments life in the New World required of them, and they were much more interested in searching for gold than in planting crops.
Early Struggles
Within three months, more than half the original settlers were dead of starvation or disease
Jamestown survived only because ships kept arriving from England with new colonists.
Captain John Smith decreed that “he who will not work shall not eat,” and things improved for a time, but after Smith was injured in a gunpowder explosion and sailed back
John Rolfe and the Development of Tobacco
One of the survivors, John Rolfe, was notable in two ways. First, he married Powhatan’s daughter Pocahontas, briefly easing the tension between the natives and the English settlers.
Second, he pioneered the practice of growing tobacco, which had long been cultivated by Native Americans, as a cash crop to be exported back to England.
Expansion in the Chesapeake
As new settlements sprang up around Jamestown, the entire area came to be known as the Chesapeake (named after the bay).
That area today comprises Virginia and Maryland.
Over 75% of the 130,000 Englishmen who migrated to the Chesapeake during the 17th century were indentured servants
House of Burgesses
In 1619, Virginia established the House of Burgesses, in which any property-holding, white male could vote.
Decisions made by the House of Burgesses, however, had to be approved by the Virginia Company.
1619 also marks the introduction of slavery to the English colonies.
French Colonization of North America
French colonized Quebec City in 1608
French colonists were fewer in number compared to Spanish and English and tended to be single men
French played a significant role in the French and Indian War (1754-1763) but overall had a much lighter impact on native peoples compared to Spanish and English
French chances of shaping the region known as British North America were slim due to the Edict of Nantes in 1598
The Pilgrims and the Massachusetts Bay Company
English Calvinists led a Protestant movement called Puritanism in the 16th century
Puritans sought to purify the Anglican Church of Roman Catholic practices
English monarchs of the early 17th century persecuted the Puritans
Puritans began to look for a new place to practice their faith
One group of Puritans, called Separatists, decided to leave England and start fresh in the New World
In 1620, Separatists set sail for Virginia on the Mayflower, but went off course and landed in modern-day Massachusetts
The group decided to settle where they had landed and named the settlement Plymouth.
The Pilgrims
Led by William Bradford
Signed the Mayflower Compact
Created a legal authority and assembly
Government's power derived from consent of governed, not God
Received assistance from local Native Americans
The Mayflower Compact
Important for creating legal system for colony
Asserted government's power from consent of governed
Assistance from Native Americans
Life-saving assistance
Pilgrims landed at site of Patuxet village wiped out by disease
Tisquantum/Squanto, an inhabitant of the village, was captured and brought to Europe as enslaved person
Returned to homeland, found it depopulated
Became Pilgrims' interpreter and taught them how to plant in their new home.
The Great Puritan Migration
1629-1642
Established by Congregationalists (Puritans who wanted to reform Anglican church from within)
Led by Governor John Winthrop
Religious Tolerance
Both Separatists and Congregationalists did not tolerate religious freedom in their colonies
Both had experienced and fled religious persecution
Calvinist Principles
Settlers of Massachusetts Bay Colony were strict Calvinists
Calvinist principles dictated their daily lives
Protestant work ethic and relationship to market economy
Roots of Civil War may be traced back to founding of Chesapeake and New England
Religious Intolerance
Two major incidents during first half of 17th century
Roger Williams, a minister in Salem Bay settlement, taught that church and state should be separate
Banished and moved to Rhode Island, founded colony with charter allowing for free exercise of religion
Anne Hutchinson, a prominent proponent of antinomianism, banished for challenging Puritan beliefs and authority of Puritan clergy
Anne Hutchinson was a woman in a resolutely patriarchal society which turned many against her.
Puritan Immigration
Near halt between 1649 and 1660 during Oliver Cromwell's rule as Lord Protector of England
Puritans had little motive to move to New World during Interregnum (between kings)
With the restoration of the Stuarts, many English Puritans again immigrated to the New World, bringing with them republican ideals of revolution
Period 2: 1607-1754
Colonization
British Treatment of the Colonies
England regulated trade and government in its colonies but interfered in colonial affairs as little as possible.
England set up absentee customs officials and colonies were left to self-govern.
England occasionally turned a blind eye to the colonies' violations of trade restrictions.
Developed a large degree of autonomy.
Helped fuel revolutionary sentiments when monarchy later attempted to gain greater control of the New World.
English Regulation of Colonial Trade
Europeans used a theory called mercantilism.
Mercantilists believed that economic power was rooted in a favorable balance of trade and control of specie
Colonies were important mostly for economic reasons, which is why the British considered their colonies in the West Indies more important than their colonies on the North American continent
Colonies on the North American continent were seen primarily as markets for British and West Indian goods, but also as sources of raw materials
British Control of Colonial Commerce
Navigation Acts passed between 1651 and 1673, required colonists to buy goods only from England, sell certain of their products only to England, and import non-English goods via English ports and pay a duty on those imports
Navigation Acts also prohibited the colonies from manufacturing a number of goods that England already produced
Wool Act of 1699
Forbade both the export of wool from the American colonies and the importation of wool from other British colonies
Some colonists protested this law by dealing only in flax and hemp
Molasses Act of 1733
Imposed an exorbitant tax upon the importation of sugar from the French West Indies
New Englanders frequently refused to pay the tax, an early example of rebellion against the Crown.
Colonial Governments
Despite trade regulations, colonists maintained a high degree of autonomy
Each colony had a governor appointed by the king or proprietor
Governor had powers similar to the king, but also dependent on colonial legislatures for money
Governor's power relied on cooperation of colonists, most ruled accordingly
British Central Government:
British never established powerful central government in colonies
Autonomy allowed eased transition to independence in following century
The Regions of the British Colonies
Near halt between 1649 and 1660 during Oliver Cromwell's rule as Lord Protector of England
Puritans had little motive to move to New World during Interregnum (between kings)
With the restoration of the Stuarts, many English Puritans again immigrated to the New World, bringing with them republican ideals of revolution
Other Early Colonies
Several colonies were owned by one person, usually received land as gift from king
Connecticut and Maryland were two such colonies
Maryland
Granted to Cecilius Calvert, Lord Baltimore
Calvert intended to create haven colony for Catholics and make a profit growing tobacco
Offered religious tolerance for all Christians but tension between faiths soon arose
Act of Tolerance passed in 1649 to protect religious freedom but situation devolved into religious civil war
New York
Royal gift to James, king's brother
Dutch Republic was largest commercial power of the century and economic rival of the British
Dutch had established initial settlement in 1614 near present-day Albany, which they called New Netherland
In 1664, Charles II of England waged war against the Dutch Republic and captured New Netherland
James became Duke of York, and when he became king in 1685, he proclaimed New York a royal colony
Dutch were allowed to remain in colony on generous terms and made up large segment of population for many years
New Jersey
Given to friends of Charles II, who sold it off to investors, many of whom were Quakers
Pennsylvania
William Penn, a Quaker, received colony as a gift from King Charles II
Charles had a friendship with William Penn and wanted to export Quakers to someplace far from England
Penn established liberal policies towards religious freedom and civil liberties
Pennsylvania had natural bounty and attracted settlers through advertising, making it one of the fastest growing colonies
Penn attempted to treat Native Americans more fairly but had mixed results
Penn made a treaty with the Delawares to take only as much land as could be walked by a man in three days. His son, however, renegotiated the treaty, hiring three marathon runners for the same task, thereby claiming considerably more land.
Carolina Colony
Proprietary colony (English-owned)
Split into North and South in 1729
South Carolina
Settled by descendants of Englishmen who had colonized Barbados
Barbados’ primary export: sugar
Plantations worked by enslaved people
Slavery in the Colonies
Existed in Virginia since 1619
Arrival of settlers from Barbados marked the beginning of the slave era in the colonies
First Englishmen in the New World to see widespread slavery at work
Formation of Georgia
Formation of South Carolina and ongoing armed conflicts with Spanish Florida prompted British to support formation of Georgia by James Oglethorpe in 1732
Georgia initially banned slavery
Slavery in Georgia
Ban was soon overturned due to economic advantage and growth afforded to neighboring South Carolina due to slavery
Royal Colonies
By the time of the Revolution, only Connecticut, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Maryland were not royal colonies.
Diversity in the Colonies
Population Growth in the Colonies
Population in 1700 was 250,000 and by 1750 it was 1,250,000
Substantial non-English European populations (Scotch-Irish, Scots, Germans) started arriving in large numbers during the 18th century
In a few colonies, Black population would outnumber whites by the time of the Revolution
Over 90% of colonists lived in rural areas
Rural Life in the Colonies
Labor divided along gender lines, men doing outdoor work and women doing indoor work
Opportunities for social interaction outside the family were limited
Children's education was secondary to their work schedules
Women were not allowed to vote, draft a will, or testify in court
Education in the Colonies
Citizens with anything above a rudimentary level of education were rare
Nearly all colleges established during this period served primarily to train ministers
Early colleges in the North include Harvard and Yale (established in 1636 and 1701, respectively)
College of William and Mary was chartered in the South in 1693
Major Events in the Period
Bacon's Rebellion:
Took place on Virginia's western frontier in 1676
Frontier farmers forced west into back country due to all coastal land being claimed
Frontier settlers sought to band together and drive out native tribes
Stymied by government in Jamestown, which did not want to risk full-scale war
Class resentment grew as frontiersmen suspected eastern elites viewed them as expendable