Presidential Election of 1860
Context and Candidates
The presidential election of 1860 was characterized by a crowded field of candidates. Abraham Lincoln positioned himself as the 'uncommon common man'. This branding appealed to a populace wary of elite politicians, a sentiment heightened after the 1828 election of Andrew Jackson, who had also represented a populist image. Lincoln’s background was comparatively humble; he grew up in poverty, born in a log cabin in Kentucky, similar to Jackson's upbringing.
Abraham Lincoln's Early Life
Lincoln's upbringing involved significant challenges. His family experienced poverty, and they moved to Indiana during Lincoln's childhood due to land ownership issues and to escape slavery's presence.
His formative years were framed within a Baptist church environment that opposed drinking, dancing, and slavery.
Personal tragedies influenced Lincoln's early life, including the loss of his mother due to milk sickness when he was nine. This illness occurs when humans consume milk or meat from animals that have ingested white snake root, a toxic plant.
Education and Career
Lincoln was self-educated, developing into a lawyer with a passion for reading and poetry, demonstrating a stark difference to Jackson’s educational pursuits.
His professional life as a lawyer showcased his deep understanding of the American legal system. Lincoln had significant personal losses in his romantic life but eventually found marital companionship with Mary Todd, resulting in four children.
Political Journey
Prior to his presidential run, Lincoln served a single term in Congress, gaining notoriety for opposing President Polk over the Mexican-American War and proposing the "spot resolution" which questioned the justification for the war.
Lincoln's unsuccessful run for the Senate in 1858 against Stephen Douglas involved a fierce political battle where his ideologies were linked to the radical actions of abolitionist John Brown, reflecting the tensions around the issue of slavery.
Political Strategies and Northern Support
Recognizing that he needed broader national support to secure the presidency, Lincoln appealed to various electorates, particularly focusing on those ambivalent about slavery through the promotion of high protective tariffs, which would enhance economic conditions for Northern manufacturers by imposing taxes on foreign goods.
To attract Western voters, Lincoln proposed the idea of free federal homesteads, which would allow settlers to claim land in the West, and he championed liberal immigration policies to encourage new citizens to support the Union.
His support for federally funded infrastructure improvements bolstered Lincoln's appeal across the North.
Election Dynamics
Southern Perspective
In contrast, the South sought candidates who explicitly endorsed slavery. Lincoln managed to evade some of these expectations but was never viewed as a favorable candidate in Southern states, which further complicated his national appeal.
Stephen Douglas's ambiguous stance on slavery ultimately alienated Southern voters, leading to a polarization of political support, as he sought a middle ground to maintain a national following.
John Breckinridge, representing a strict pro-slavery stance, and John Bell, who attempted to maintain neutrality, rounded out the candidate pool, with neither fully winning over Southern voters.
Election Outcome
Notably, when the election results emerged, Lincoln secured roughly 40% of the popular vote and a significant majority of the Electoral College while the South declared they would not recognize him as president since not one Southern elector voted for him—primarily because Southern states had removed Lincoln’s name from ballots. This act prompted a self-fulfilling prophecy concerning secession.
Secession and the Civil War
Immediate Reactions Post-Election
Following the election, the period leading to Lincoln’s inauguration in 1861 saw Southern states react adversely to Lincoln’s election. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina held a convention and passed an ordinance of secession based on fears regarding the institution of slavery. Their reasons for secession were tied directly to threats perceived from Lincoln’s presidency and the continuance of slavery.
In early 1861, several more states, including Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, and Texas, followed South Carolina's lead, culminating in the formation of the Confederate States of America.
Buchanan’s Inaction
President James Buchanan’s failure to respond decisively to the rising tide of secession drew substantial criticism. He believed that Southern states were bluffing regarding their intentions to secede, misjudging the seriousness of the situation. This inaction is often noted as a contributing factor to the onset of the Civil War.
Lincoln, as president-elect, found himself in a position of limited authority to effectively address secession and had no military power until he assumed office officially.
Lincoln's Legal Stance
Prior to his inauguration, Lincoln articulated his legal position that individuals were in rebellion, but states had not seceded legally—an essential point since it determined how he would address the conduct of the war and subsequent measures against the Confederacy. According to Lincoln, the Union was indivisible, akin to the interdependence of body parts for life to continue.
As the war progressed, Lincoln took decisive action, including the controversial suspension of the writ of habeas corpus, which allowed for the arrest and detention of individuals without trial, particularly in Maryland and other border states, to suppress dissent and ensure Union security.
Fort Sumter
In the lead-up to actual hostilities, South Carolina localized tensions by surrounding Fort Sumter, a federal installation. An early attempt to resupply the fort with the merchant ship Star of the West in January 1861 was met with Confederate gunfire, forcing it to retreat and signaling the heightened tensions. When Confederate forces opened fire on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, it marked the start of overt military confrontations and the official beginning of the Civil War.
Legislative Attempts at Compromise
Congressional attempts at compromise during this tumultuous period included the Kentucky amendment, which would have enshrined slavery in the Constitution. Lincoln, perhaps pragmatically, indicated he could support such a measure as a means to halt secession, but circumstances shifted such that this proposal would never come to fruition.
Lincoln's Inaugural Address
In his inaugural speech, Lincoln clarified again that he sought to preserve slavery in existing states, hinting at a lack of inclination to abolish it outright, adopting a free soil rather than abolitionist stance. This statement was crucial as Southern states, fearing the encroachment on their societal structure, began to withdraw from national allegiance.
Early Wartime Actions and Leadership
Further Developments and Military Decisions
After Lincoln's presidency fully commenced, four more states seceded, underscoring a broader alignment of Southern states against perceived Northern aggression and the forsaking of compromise. Among these was Virginia, leading to a fateful decision by Robert E. Lee to resign his commission in the U.S. Army and command Virginia's forces, choosing loyalty to his home state despite opposing secession.
West Virginia was formed in 1863 when counties in western Virginia, largely anti-slavery and loyal to the Union, broke away from the Confederate state of Virginia and were admitted as a new state.
Initial Strategies and Mobilization
In examining the early Civil War statistics, it becomes clear that the Confederacy faced severe disadvantages, including a lack of industrial capabilities and fewer railway lines which hindered troop mobilization and supply flow. The Southern population of approximately million ( million enslaved) was dwarfed by the North's million.
While the South could have fought a primarily defensive war on their home turf, they chose to launch an offensive against a better-supplied and populated enemy, leading to significant challenges.
Southern Advantages: Strong military tradition, experienced officers, fighting on home ground, and a deeply motivated populace defending their way of life.
Union General Winfield Scott conceived the "Anaconda Strategy," an early Union plan to blockade Southern ports and control the Mississippi River, effectively 'strangling' the Confederacy by cutting off its trade and dividing it.
Both the Union and the Confederacy eventually resorted to conscription, or a military draft, to fill their ranks, facing significant public resistance and leading to various forms of exemptions and substitutions.
George McClellan, appointed to command the Union's Army of the Potomac, was known for his meticulous organization and training, though often criticized for his cautious approach to battle.
Key Early Engagements
The Battle of Antietam, fought on September , , in Maryland, was the bloodiest single day in American history, resulting in approximately casualties. Although a tactical draw, it was a strategic Union victory as it halted Lee's first invasion of the North and gave President Lincoln the confidence to issue the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.