Model Textbook of Chemistry - 180 Flashcards (Video Notes)

Unit 1: Nature of Science in Chemistry

• Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs)
  • Define chemistry as the study of matter, its properties, composition, and its interactions with other matter and energy.
  • Explain that chemistry has many sub-fields and interdisciplinary connections.
  • Formulate essential questions for branches of chemistry.
  • Differentiate between science, technology and engineering with examples from physical sciences.
• 1.1 Definition of Chemistry and Its Interaction with Other Matter and Energy
  • Chemistry is the science that investigates the materials of the universe and the changes these materials undergo.
  • It deals with the composition, structure, properties, behavior, and changes of matter and energy.
  • Understanding fundamental concepts helps explain natural phenomena and enables creation of new substances, drugs and technologies.
  • Do you know? Green chemistry reduces pollution by using safer substances and processes.
  • Green Chemistry: designing chemical products and processes to minimize hazardous substances.
• 1.2 Branches of Chemistry
  • Organic Chemistry: substances containing carbon (except exclude certain carbonates, bicarbonates, oxides, carbides).
  • Inorganic Chemistry: elements and compounds excluding organic compounds.
  • Physical Chemistry: laws/theories to understand structure and changes of matter.
  • Analytical Chemistry: methods/instruments to determine composition and properties.
  • Biochemistry: chemical changes in living organisms.
  • Environmental Chemistry: pollutants/toxic substances and their effects on humans and environment.
  • Industrial Chemistry: large-scale production of chemicals.
  • Medicinal Chemistry: interactions between drugs and biological targets; development of medicines.
  • Polymer Chemistry: polymers, their types, properties, uses and polymerizations (examples: nylon, polyethylene, polyester, Teflon, epoxy).
  • Geochemistry: chemical composition/distribution/transformation of elements in Earth’s crust.
  • Nuclear Chemistry: changes in atomic nuclei.
  • Astrochemistry: chemical processes in astronomical environments.
• 1.3 Essential Questions for Branches of Chemistry
  • Physical Chemistry: structure of an atom and its influence on behavior; how bonds form and function.
  • Organic Chemistry: why carbon is the backbone; major functional groups.
  • Inorganic Chemistry: distinctions between inorganic/organic; use of periodic table to organize elements.
  • Analytical Chemistry: how analytical methods identify/quantify substances.
  • Biochemistry: biomolecules’ roles in structure and function of organisms.
  • Environmental Chemistry: effects of human activities on air pollution; role of greenhouse gases and mitigation.
  • Medicinal Chemistry: how drugs are designed/developed for therapy.
  • Polymer Chemistry: what are polymers and how their structures affect properties.
  • Geochemistry/Astronomy/Nuclear Chemistry: how geology/space/radioisotopes contribute to science.
• 1.4 Daily Life Applications of Chemistry
  • Organic Chemistry: synthesis of medicines targeting specific proteins/enzymes.
  • Inorganic Chemistry: Li-ion batteries for electronics and vehicles.
  • Analytical Chemistry: forensic chemistry – identifying substances from traces.
  • Physical Chemistry: electrochemistry in batteries and energy devices.
  • Environmental Chemistry: protecting water from pollution using filtration and disinfection.
• 1.5: Science, Technology and Engineering
  • Science: systematic study of the natural world to understand fundamental principles.
  • Technology: applying scientific knowledge for practical tools and systems.
  • Engineering: designing and building systems/tools; chemical engineers optimize production processes.
• 1.6 Applications of Science, Technology, and Engineering (Real-World Scenarios)
  • Example 1.1: Rusting of iron – investigate reactions between iron, water and oxygen; develop rust-prevention strategies.
  • Example 1.2: Harnessing Solar Energy – photovoltaic principles, design of solar panels, large-scale energy systems.
  • Example 1.3: Water Filtration System – collaboration of chemical/mechanical engineers in filtration and post-treatment.
  • Example 1.4: Organic Chemistry in Action – oil extraction from seeds; food tech and chemical engineering in oil production.
  • Example 1.5: Plastic Bags – monomers to polymers; polyethylene chains; polymer applications in everyday life.
• KEY POINTS
  • Chemistry studies matter and its carbon-containing compounds cover many aspects.
  • Distinguish among science, technology and engineering; recognize their interconnections in real-world chemistry.
  • The unit emphasizes concept assessment at unit ends and quick reference points.

Unit 2: Matter

• SLOs
  • Define matter as substance with mass and occupying space.
  • Distinguish macroscopic properties of solids, liquids, gases (density, compressibility, fluidity).
  • Recognize that states of matter include plasma and exotic states (e.g., BEC, liquid crystals).
  • Explain allotropy (different allotropic forms of solids).
  • Differentiate elements, compounds, mixtures; classify solutions, colloids, suspensions as mixtures.
  • Explain temperature effects on solubility and formation of unsaturated/saturated solutions.
• 2.1 State of Matter
  • Four states: Gas, Liquid, Solid, Plasma.
  • States are determined by arrangement/movement of particles and intermolecular/atomic forces.
  • Energy can convert matter between states (solid → liquid → gas; gas → plasma at extreme conditions).
  • Liquid crystals: intermediate state with properties of both liquids and solids; occurs within a temperature range.
  • Bose-Einstein Condensates (BEC): near-absolute-zero state; observed under extreme cooling; contains superfluid/superconductors.
• 2.2 Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
  • Matter can be described by physical and chemical properties.
  • Pure substances: Elements and Compounds.
  • Mixtures: Homogeneous vs Heterogeneous; colloids vs suspensions.
  • Element: simplest form of matter consisting of same atoms; atomic number Z = number of protons.
  • Compound: substances formed by chemical combination of two or more different elements.
  • Mixtures: physical combinations that retain individual components; tea (milk, water, tea leaves, sugar).
• 2.3 Allotropes
  • Allotropy: elements existing in different physical forms in the same state.
  • Examples for carbon: Diamond, Graphite, Buckminsterfullerene (C60).
  • Graphite: layers of hexagonally arranged carbon; conductive; lubricating properties due to weak interlayer forces.
  • Diamond: tetrahedral network; very high melting point; non-conductive.
• 2.4 Solution
  • Solution: homogeneous mixture; solute dissolved in solvent; particles < 1 nm.
  • Solute vs Solvent: solute is dissolved; solvent is dissolving medium; water is universal solvent.
  • Gaseous, liquid, and solid solutions exist (e.g., air, salt water, alloys).
• 2.4.1 Aqueous Solutions
  • Water dissolves many substances; stable mixture; common in labs.
• 2.4.2 Saturated Solution
  • Contains maximum solute at given temperature; dynamic equilibrium with undissolved solute.
• 2.4.3 Unsaturated Solution
  • Can dissolve more solute at current temperature.
• 2.4.5 Supersaturated Solution
  • Contains more solute than a saturated solution at a given temperature; unstable; crystallization occurs on seeding.
• 2.4.6 Concentrated and Dilute Solutions
  • Dilute: small amount of solute; Concentrated: large amount of solute.
• 2.4.7 Solubility
  • Maximum solute that dissolves in a solvent at a specific temperature; affected by solvent, temperature, and pressure.
• 2.4.8 Effect of Temperature on Solubility
  • Some solutes increase solubility with temperature (e.g.,
    ext{KCl}, ext{NH}4 ext{Cl}); others decrease (e.g., ext{Ca(OH)}2).
• 2.5 Colloids & Suspensions
  • Colloid: heterogeneous mixture with particle sizes 1–1000 nm; particles undissolved but distributed; do not settle; Tyndall effect demonstrates light scattering.
  • Examples: starch, albumin, milk, ink, toothpaste.
  • Suspension: heterogeneous mixture with particles >1000 nm; particles settle; e.g., chalk in water, milk of magnesia, paints.
• KEY POINTS
  • Matter has defined macroscopic properties and categorization (solids, liquids, gases, plasmas).
  • Distinguish pure substances vs mixtures; colloids vs suspensions; solute/solvent distinctions.
  • Solubility and solution types depend on temperature and solvent.

Unit 3: Atomic Structure

• SLOs
  • Explain the atom as a central nucleus of neutrons and protons surrounded by electrons in shells.
  • Understand energy levels (shells) and larger shells imply higher energy/distance from nucleus.
  • Electrons are quantum particles with probabilistic paths; exact paths cannot be mapped (uncertainty principle).
  • Nucleus composed of protons and neutrons bound by strong nuclear force.
  • Atomic model as an aid to understanding structure, not a literal physical replica.
  • Relative charge/masses of subatomic particles: electron, proton, neutron.
• 3.1 Atomic Models
  • Dalton’s atomic theory (1803): elements are composed of atoms; atoms of the same element identical; chemical reactions involve combining/arranging atoms; atoms not created/destroyed.
  • Rutherford (1911): gold foil experiment; discovered nucleus; atoms mostly empty space; nucleus positively charged; electrons orbit nucleus; introduced planetary model.
  • Defects of Rutherford model: classical physics predicts radiating energy causes collapse of orbit; continuous spectrum issues.
  • Bohr model (1913): electrons orbit nucleus in fixed energy levels; energy depends on distance from nucleus; angular momentum quantized: L = rac{nh}{2    } (n is the principal quantum number); absorption/emission occur when electrons jump between levels; energy difference riangle E = E2 - E1.
  • Quantum Mechanical Model: electrons described by orbitals; probabilistic regions where electrons may be found; Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: cannot simultaneously know exact position and trajectory.
  • de Broglie: electrons have wave-particle duality; experimental confirmation by Davisson and Germer (1927).
  • Atomic Model concept: models help interpret observations; nucleus contains protons and neutrons; electrons occupy surrounding shells; mass concentrated in nucleus; nucleus held together by strong nuclear force.
• 3.2 Subatomic Particles
  • Protons: +1 charge; ~1 amu; located in nucleus.
  • Neutrons: 0 charge; ~1 amu; located in nucleus.
  • Electrons: −1 charge; ~1/1836 amu; orbit nucleus.
  • Relative masses: protons and neutrons ~1 amu; electrons negligible mass.
  • Electric field effects on charged particles: in a uniform field, protons bend toward negative plate, electrons toward positive plate; neutrons pass straight through.
• 3.3 Proton Number (Atomic Number) and Isotopes
  • Atomic number Z: number of protons; unique to element; determines identity and periodic table position.
  • Isotopes: atoms with same Z but different mass numbers A (= Z + N); neutrons vary; chemical properties largely unchanged; isotopes used in dating and imaging.
  • Nucleon number (mass number) A: total protons + neutrons; neutrons = A − Z.
  • Radioactivity: some isotopes unstable; radioactive decay changes either neutrons or protons; examples: Carbon-14 → Nitrogen-14; Uranium-238 → decays to Lead-206.
• 3.4 Relative Atomic Mass and Atomic Mass Unit
  • Standard: Carbon-12 (C-12) defined as exactly 12 amu; one amu = 1/12 of C-12 mass.
  • Relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the weighted average of isotopic masses considering their natural abundances:
    ext{Ar} = rac{\sumi ( ext{abundance}i \,\times\, ext{mass}_i)}{100}.
  • Example: Hydrogen isotopes have abundances and masses leading to Ar(H) ≈ 1.008 amu.
• 3.5 Isotopes
  • Hydrogen isotopes: protium ({}^1H), deuterium ({}^2H or D), tritium ({}^3H or T).
  • Carbon isotopes: {}^{12}C, {}^{13}C, {}^{14}C with natural abundances leading to Ar(C) ≈ 12.00026 amu.
  • Chlorine isotopes: {}^{35}Cl (~75%), {}^{37}Cl (~25%).
  • Uranium isotopes: {}^{234}U, {}^{235}U, {}^{238}U with natural abundances that inform reactor/fuel usage.
• 3.6 Cations and Anions
  • Cations: positive ions formed when atoms lose electrons; typical for metals; example: Na^+, Mg^{2+}.
  • Anions: negative ions formed when atoms gain electrons; typical for nonmetals; example: F^−, O^{2−}.
  • Problem-solving strategies: use atomic number Z to determine protons/electrons; oxidization states correspond to electron loss/gain.
  • Example: Na → Na^+ (loss of 1 electron); Mg → Mg^{2+} (loss of 2 electrons).
• 3.7 Electronic Configuration
  • Shells and subshells: K (n=1) → 1s; L (n=2) → 2s, 2p; M (n=3) → 3s, 3p, 3d; N (n=4) → 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f.
  • Capacity: s = 2, p = 6, d = 10, f = 14 electrons per subshell.
  • Aufbau Principle: fill lowest-energy sub-shells first: order ~ 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, …
  • Electron configuration notation for atoms/ions; ion symbols with superscripts and subscripts denote mass/charge.
• KEY POINTS
  • Rutherford proposed nucleus; Bohr introduced quantized orbits; quantum model describes orbitals.
  • Isotopes share chemical properties but differ in physical properties due to mass differences.
  • Relative atomic mass Ar uses C-12 as standard; mass unit is amu.
  • Cations form by losing electrons; anions by gaining electrons; ion formation depends on valence electrons.
  • Electronic configuration determines block (s/p/d/f) and group/period placement in the periodic table.

Unit 4: Periodic Table and Periodicity of Properties

• SLOs
  • Define periodic table as arrangement by periods and groups in increasing atomic number.
  • Identify group/period/block from electronic configuration (subshells indicate blocks).
  • Relate group number to ion charge formed by elements in that group.
  • Explain similarities/differences of elements in same group/period; trends in atomic radius, electron affinity, electronegativity, ionization energy, metallic character, density.
  • Use terms: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, noble gases, transition metals, lanthanides, actinides.
• 4.1 Periodic Table
  • Elements arranged by increasing atomic number (Moseley’s work, 1913).
  • Periods: horizontal rows; groups: vertical columns; seven periods in total; element counts per period vary (2 in period 1, 32 in period 6, etc.).
  • IUPAC group numbering 1-18; traditional A/B labeling still used in some contexts.
• 4.1.1 Periods and Groups
  • Hydrogen (H) top-left; Helium (He) top-right; periodic repetition of properties.
  • Periods reflect energy level filling; groups reflect similar valence electron configurations.
  • Activity 4.1: identify number of elements per period (periods 1–7).
• 4.1.2 s and p Blocks in the Periodic Table
  • s-block: Groups 1–2 (alkali and alkaline earth metals); valence electrons in s-sub-shell.
  • p-block: Groups 13–18 (excluding He); valence electrons in p-sub-shell; includes nonmetals/metalloids/other metals.
  • Lanthanides and actinides are f-block elements.
• 4.2 Group Number and Charge on an Ion
  • Group number equals valence electrons (for s-block elements).
  • For p-block, group number equals valence electrons plus 10.
  • Example: Na (Group 1) forms +1; Cl (Group 17) forms −1; O (Group 16) forms −2.
• 4.3 Periodicity of Properties
  • Shielding effect: inner electrons shield nucleus, reducing effective nuclear charge on valence electrons.
  • Atomic size: decreases across a period, increases down a group.
  • Ionization energy: increases across a period, decreases down a group.
  • Electron affinity: generally increases across a period (more exothermic to gain electron); decreases down a group.
  • Electronegativity: increases across a period; decreases down a group.
  • Exceptions and nuances exist; higher-grade details covered in activities.
• 4.4 Characteristic Properties
  • Group 1 (alkali metals): highly reactive, soft, low density, good conductors, low melting points, form +1 ions, react with water to release H2.
  • Group 2 (alkaline earth metals): less reactive than Group 1 but still reactive; form +2 ions.
  • Group 17 (halogens): diatomic non-metals; highly reactive; gain 1 electron to form −1 ions; reactivity decreases down the group.
  • Group 18 (noble gases): inert; full valence shells; mono-atomic gases.
  • Transition elements (d-block): high density, high melting points, variable oxidation states, colored compounds, catalytic activity.
  • Lanthanides and Actinides: f-block elements at the bottom of the table.
  • Halogens appearance trend: F2 (pale yellow gas), Cl2 (yellow-green gas), Br2 (red-brown liquid), I2 (grey-black solid).
• 4.5–4.9 Additional Topics
  • Positioning unknown elements using electronic configuration; predicting properties (melting point, density, reactivity) from group/period.
  • Noble gases electronic configuration; comparison of metals vs non-metals in physical properties (thermal/electrical conductivity, malleability, hardness).
• 4.4.2 Reactivity
  • Reactivity trends: increases down a group; left-to-right across a period the reactivity shifts depending on left-side metals vs right-side nonmetals.
• KEY POINTS
  • Periodic law: element properties repeat periodically with increasing atomic number.
  • Block designation (s/p/d/f) correlates with valence electron configuration and group/period placement.
  • Ion formation follows predictable patterns based on valence electrons.
  • Physical properties show general trends (atomic size, ionization energy, electronegativity, etc.) with notable exceptions.

Unit 5: Chemical Bonding

• SLOs
  • Explain noble gas electronic configuration, octet/duplet rules to predict main-group chemistry.
  • Compare formation of cations and anions.
  • Explain electropositive/electronegative nature of metals/non-metals.
  • Define ionic, covalent, coordinate covalent and metallic bonds.
  • Differentiate between ionic and covalent compounds.
  • Explain structure/property relationships in bonding; conduction mechanisms; solubility/ionization in water; graphite vs diamond vs metals.
• 5.1 Noble-Gas Configurations and Octet/duplet Rules
  • Noble gas core provides stable electron configuration; octet rule: main-group elements tend to attain eight electrons in their valence shell via bonding.
  • Duplet rule for hydrogen, helium, lithium (2 electrons in the valence shell).
  • Examples: Na (loses 1 electron to achieve Ne-like configuration); Cl (gains 1 electron to complete octet).
• 5.2 Electropositive vs Electronegative Elements
  • Metals: electropositive; lose electrons to form cations; low ionization energy and low electronegativity.
  • Non-metals: electronegative; gain electrons to form anions; high electron affinity.
• 5.3 Types of Bonds
  • Ionic bonds: electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions (formed by transfer of electrons).
  • Covalent bonds: sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
  • 5.3.1 Ionic Bonds: formation of cations/anions; examples NaCl, MgO; electron-dot/electron-cross diagrams; simple ionic formulas (NaCl, MgO, MgF2).
  • 5.3.2 Covalent Bonds: single, double, and triple bonds; Lewis structures and dot-cross representations; examples H2, O2, CO2, H2O, CH4, NH3, etc.
  • 5.3.3 Bond Polarity: Non-polar covalent bonds (equal sharing; identical atoms or shared electronegativity) vs Polar covalent bonds (unequal sharing; electronegativity difference).
  • 5.3.4 Coordinate Covalent Bonds: shared electron pair originates from one atom; common in complex ions (e.g., NH4+, H3O+); examples: NH3-BF3 adducts, hydronium (H3O+).
• 5.4 Intermolecular Forces
  • Dipole-dipole interactions: occur between polar molecules; light scattering (Tyndall effect) distinguishes colloids from true solutions.
  • Hydrogen bonding: strong dipole-dipole interaction involving H bonded to N, O, or F with lone pairs on nearby electronegative atoms; important in water, proteins, DNA, and glues.
• 5.5 Nature of Bonding, Structure and Properties
  • Factors affecting properties: type of particles (ions, atoms, molecules), strength of bonds, and structural arrangement (giant vs discrete molecules).
  • Conduction in ionic compounds: solid-state ions are immobile; molten or dissolved ions conduct electricity.
  • Covalent compounds: generally poor conductors; high-melting points when giant covalent networks (e.g., SiO2, diamond); low melting points for simple covalent molecules due to weak intermolecular forces.
• 5.5.1 Graphite
  • Graphite: carbon layer structure; each C forms 3 covalent bonds in layers; weak van der Waals between layers; good lubricative properties; conducts electricity.
• 5.5.2 Diamond
  • Diamond: tetrahedral network of carbon; each C bonded to four C; very hard; high melting point; poor electrical conductivity.
• 5.5.3 Contrasting Ionic and Covalent Compounds
  • Ionic compounds: high melting/boiling points; conduct electricity when molten or dissolved; brittle.
  • Covalent compounds: variable melting/boiling points; poor conductors; can be polar or non-polar; many have low melting points.
• 5.6 Metallic Bonds
  • In metals, valence electrons are delocalized as an electron sea; cations form a lattice held by electrostatic attraction to the electron cloud.
  • Results: malleability, ductility, high electrical and thermal conductivity, high melting points, metallic luster.
• 5.6.1 Metals for Industry
  • Giant metallic structures enable strong bonding; layered/close-packed structures allow malleability; delocalized electrons enable conductivity; high melting points ensure thermal stability.
• KEY POINTS
  • Octet/duplet rules underpin main-group bonding; covalent/ionic/coordinate covalent/metallic bonds explain a wide range of substances.
  • Intermolecular forces (dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding) influence physical properties like boiling/melting points and solubility.
  • Graphite vs diamond illustrate how bonding and structure govern material properties.
  • Ionic compounds conduct electricity in molten/solution states; covalent compounds generally do not; metals conduct due to electron mobility.

Quick-reference Equations and Concepts

• Bohr energy levels and transitions

  • Electron energy levels: circular orbits with quantized angular momentum:
    L = rac{n h}{2 }
  • Energy difference for transitions:
    riangle E = E2 - E1

• Relative atomic mass

  • Relative atomic mass (Ar) calculation from isotopes:
    ext{Ar} = rac{\, ext{abundance}1 imes ext{mass}1 + ext{abundance}2 imes ext{mass}2 + \,}{100}

• Mass unit

  • One atomic mass unit:
    1 ext{ amu} = rac{m_{ ext{C-12}}}{12}

• Ion formation (general)

  • Cations: metals lose electrons to form positive ions.
  • Anions: non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions.
  • Example formulas: Na → Na^+, Mg → Mg^{2+}, Cl + e^− → Cl^−.

• Octet and duplet rules (Lewis/valence)

  • Octet: 8 electrons in valence shell for main-group elements (except He: 2).
  • Duplet: 2 electrons for H, He, Li (in their valence shell).

• Electron configuration notation

  • Atoms/ions represented as: mass number superscript, element symbol, charge superscript; atomic number subscript (often omitted).
  • Example: ${}^{24}_{12} ext{Mg}^{2+}$.

• Connections to daily life and real-world relevance

  • Green chemistry reduces hazard and pollution.
  • Batteries rely on electrochemistry and materials chemistry.
  • Isotopes are used for medical imaging, carbon dating, and industrial applications.
  • Understanding bonding explains material properties used in industry (graphite, diamond, metals).

Practice prompts (from the text)

• Identify the group and period of an element from its electronic configuration.
• Explain how shielding effect changes across a group vs across a period.
• Compare metallic character and reactivity trends across the periodic table.
• Draw Lewis structures for simple molecules (H2O, CH4, CO2, NH3).
• Explain the difference between ionic and covalent bonds with examples.
• Describe coordinate covalent bonding and give an example.
• Explain how isotopes can have different masses but similar chemical properties.
• Explain how solubility changes with temperature using examples (e.g., NaCl vs Ca(OH)2).