Untitled Flashcards Set

Industrializing the Farm

Agriculture was changing in America’s Gilded Age, probably faster than it had for all of its prior existence.

Agriculture is at least 10,000 years old.… But it still required the better part of the intervening 100 centuries for agriculture to begin to move from a traditional to a scientific approach. And that evolution was a major impetus for the birth of land-grant schools.

— Fred Brown, from “150th Anniversary of the Morrill Act of 1862”

The Morrill Land Grant Act gave federal land to each state to establish a college focused on agriculture and engineering. At first many farmers seemed to resent what could be learned from “book farmers,” preferring learning by experience. And what experiences they were having—industrialization was affecting farming as much as it was manufacturing.

Tens of thousands of farms were set up in the semi-arid Great Plains and the West in the late 1800s. Many farmers planned to grow high-demand cereal crops like corn and wheat. The most valuable resource for westward-bound farmers was not gold or silver, but water. If you had a powerful drill and a windmill-powered pump, you could draw water from hundreds of feet underground.

This horse-powered thresher separates wheat kernels from the chaff, an inedible natural casing covering the seeds.Public Domain

The land itself was often a challenge, requiring steel-tipped and later mechanized plows. As cities drew workers away, many farmers sought machines to replace the labor of people. Mechanical threshers, reapers, and seeders were available, at significant cost. In fact, new devices and processes were in development for every step of crop production, including transport to market. Farmers needed efficient ways to get their crops to loading docks, railroads, and processing factories. Mills ground cereals into flour, and canneries preserved fruits, vegetables, and even meat. Those who created large-scale, corporate farms took advantage of such devices and invested in the new processes more easily than small farmers.

Have you ever heard of the orphan trains? One Gilded Age solution to poor children in the cities was sending the children into foster care on small farms and homesteads. They were expected to work on the farm to help their foster family and earn their keep. You can read about their experiences in The Orphan Trains: Placing Out in America by Marilyn Irvin Holt.

The Farmer's Plight

In addition to the competition they faced from businesses, which bought up vast tracts of land and industrialized food processing, farmers often had difficulty making ends meet due to the interest on necessary loans. The new machines were expensive but necessary to stay competitive. As production increased, food prices fell. This was great news for most Americans but a challenge for farmers who depended on selling food crops for income. Review the graphic below for more information about the cycle of debt that confronted many small-scale farmers.

Interestingly, economic historians today challenge the basis for the farmers’ plight. According to James I. Stewart, “Many of the complaints of farmers are weakly supported or even contradicted by the available evidence, leaving questions about the true causes of farm unrest.” For example, though crop prices were falling, so were prices in general, raising doubt that farm incomes overall were decreasing. However, such historians do point to some complaints that have a sound basis:

• Commercialization of agriculture after the Civil War—farmers with an ideal of self-sufficiency found themselves dependent upon railroads, merchants, and creditors.

• High price of credit—it was truly high, but while farmers criticized bankers as greedy, historians point to the extreme risk of investing in a frontier farm that was susceptible to drought and crop failure.

• Instability—farmers in the West faced adverse growing conditions, particularly lack of water, and if crops failed they may not be able to count on prices going up as the international market for farm goods opened up.

A Grange meeting had a social as well as political atmosphere. Notice the musicians and fine décor and clothing in this image.Public Domain

No matter the true causes of their grievances, farmers did not sit idly by waiting for the world to change. They organized into cooperatives and organizations intent on finding solutions to common issues. The National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry ("Grange" for short) was founded in 1867, followed by the Farmers’ Alliance 10 years later. Both grew chapters around the country and served as social clubs as well. Such cooperatives would pool funds to build their own grain elevators or mills, or buy equipment that could be shared among members. They also tried buying goods in bulk to lower prices from distributors like Montgomery Ward. The Grange provided legal assistance to members and sought state laws to protect their interests.

The organizations helped many farmers but may have exacerbated the farmers’ plight as well by contributing to overproduction. Farmers sought to grow more crops to help increase their income, yet as yields outstripped demand, prices decreased further. Attorney Mary Elizabeth Lease recognized the issue and encouraged Grangers to "raise less corn and more hell." Soon they would start their own political party.

Populism

Frustrated by what they saw as a lack of support from either major political party, farmers formed their own political party in 1890. Two years later, People’s Party delegates met in Nebraska to write a platform and select a presidential candidate. Their main aims were:

• government ownership of railroads

• graduated income tax (tax responsibility increases with income) to replace property tax

• free coinage of silver to expand the money supply

The last goal was probably the most controversial, with people from all backgrounds making arguments for and against coining silver as well as gold. Many farmers saw it as a way to enable them to pay debts. Many people, including some farmers, feared it would lead to widespread inflation, creating problems across the economy.

Though James B. Weaver failed to win the 1892 election, Populism certainly made an impression on American politics.Public Domain

William Jennings Bryan's Cross of Gold

Though he was a lifelong Democrat, William Jennings Bryan enjoyed the 1896 nominations from his own party as well as the Populists (though the Populists chose a different running mate for him). He was sympathetic to many Populist sentiments, alienating some fellow Democrats. However, as a speaker, he was like an unstoppable force. He captured the nation’s attention (and his nominations) through his famous “Cross of Gold” speech at the Democratic National Convention. J.W. Harris, a man inspired to vote for the first time by Bryan, said his speech “will go down in the history of ages and be remembered as long as the English language is spoken.”

W.J. Bryan's "Cross of Gold" speech is a significant historical document. Note that when analyzing historical evidence, pointing out the evidence's mere existence is not enough to back up a claim. For example, just noting that Bryan made the speech is not enough to explain how it led to his candidacy. Other potential nominees made speeches that day. You have to draw the connections between what he said and how people reacted to it.

Select each part of the following excerpt from Bryan's speech to learn more.

Library of Congress, LC-DIG-pga-03796

"There are two ideas of government. There are those who believe that, if you will only legislate to make the well-to-do prosperous, their prosperity will leak through on those below. The Democratic idea, however, has been that if you legislate to make the masses prosperous, their prosperity will find its way up through every class which rests upon them. You come to us and tell us that the great cities are in favor of the gold standard; we reply that the great cities rest upon our broad and fertile prairies. Burn down your cities and leave our farms, and your cities will spring up again as if by magic; but destroy our farms and the grass will grow in the streets of every city in the country.

Having behind us the producing masses of this nation and the world, supported by the commercial interests, the laboring interests, and the toilers everywhere, we will answer their demand for a gold standard by saying to them: 'You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.'"

Notes

Industrializing the Farm

• Agriculture was changing significantly during America’s Gilded Age, marking a shift from traditional to scientific approaches.

• The Morrill Land Grant Act provided federal land to states for creating colleges dedicated to agriculture and engineering.

• Farmers initially resisted learning from 'book farmers' and preferred experiential learning.

Developments in Agriculture

• Late 1800s saw tens of thousands of farms established in the Great Plains and West, focusing on high-demand crops like corn and wheat.

• Water proved to be the most valuable resource for these farmers, with technology like windmill-powered pumps facilitating access to underground water.

• Farming was mechanized with horse-powered threshers, steel-tipped plows, and machines replacing labor as cities drew workers away.

• Innovations were being developed for every aspect of farming and crop transport leading to increased efficiency.

The Farmer's Plight

• Farmers faced competition from businesses that industrialized food processing and acquired large land tracts.

• Borrowing for expensive machinery led to financial difficulty as increased production drove food prices down.

• Economic historians suggest that complaints about farmer struggles may lack strong supporting evidence, but certain issues are valid:

  • Farmers became dependent on commercial agriculture and external lenders.

  • High credit costs were justified by the risks involved in frontier farming, particularly with droughts.

  • Instability due to adverse conditions often prevented farmers from benefiting from fluctuations in crop prices.

Organization and Advocacy

• Farmers organized into cooperatives like the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry (1867) and the Farmers’ Alliance (1877).

• These organizations served social functions as well as pooling resources to build infrastructure and buy equipment collectively.

• Despite some successes, the push for increased production sometimes led to wider price drops, prompting figures like Mary Elizabeth Lease to advocate for change.

Populism

• In response to perceived neglect by major parties, farmers formed the People’s Party in 1890, later articulating their demands at their Nebraska convention in 1892:

  • Government ownership of railroads

  • Graduated income tax to replace property tax

  • Free coinage of silver to inflate the money supply, which was controversial as it raised fears of inflation.

William Jennings Bryan and the Cross of Gold

• William Jennings Bryan garnered support from both Democrats and Populists due to his powerful oratory, particularly his "Cross of Gold" speech.

• His speech emphasized valuing the masses over the wealthy and framed the debate around currency standardization in terms of labor and agricultural interests.