demography - notes

Birth rates

Trends:

. Long-term decline in the number of births

. Fluctuations - e.g. baby booms following war when men returned from their service

. Long-term decline in fertility rates

Reasons

  • Changes in women’s position

~ more women are in paid employment - Equal Pay Act 1970 & Sex Discrimination Act 1975

~ Easier access to divorce, abortion, and reliable contraception gives women more control over their fertility & family life

~ Harper - education has been the most important factor as it has changed the mind-set of young women, resulting in fewer children as they see more possibilities beyond the housewife image

  • Decline in infant mortality rates

Harper - if many infants die, parents have more children to replace those they have lost, thereby increasing the birth rate. If infants survive parents will have fewer of them

Infants mortality rates dropped because:

~ Improved housing & better sanitation - clean drinking water, reduced chances of infections

~ Better nutrition (children & mothers)

~ Better knowledge of hygiene through education

~ Improved medical knowledge & postnatal clinics/services

  • Child-centredness

Until the 19th century, children were economic assets for the family as they were sent to work & contributed to the household income

This has now changed, & children are now economic liabilities

~ Laws banning child labour, introducing compulsory schooling, raising the school leaving age mean children are economically dependent on their parents (&for longer)

~ Changing norms about what children have a right to expect from their parents materially mean the cost of brining them up has risen - financial pressures make parents feel less able & willing to have a large family

Consequences

  • Family

The creation of smaller families mean that women are more likely to be free to go out to work → creates the duel earner couple, negotiated families

However, couples that are financially stable may be able to have larger families & still afford child-care that allows them both to work full time

  • Society

~ Dependency ratio - relationship between the size of the working population & the size of the non-working (dependent) population

The earnings, savings, and taxes of the working pop must support the dependent pop - children make up a large part of the dependent pop, so a fall in birth rates reduces the burden of dependency

However, in the longer term, less babies born will mean fewer young adults & smaller working pop & so the burden of dependency may begin to increase again

~ Public services

Fewer schools, maternity services, child health services, houses needed → less ‘place’ for children. The collapse of child-based services limits employment opportunities

Death rates

Trends:

. Begun to fall from about 1870 & continued to do so until 1930

. Rose slightly in the 1930s-40s largely due to the economic depression & WW2

Reasons

  • Improved nutrition

Thomas McKeown - accounted for ½ of the reduction in death rates & was important for reducing deaths for tuberculosis as it increased the resistance to infection which increased the survival chances of those who did become infected

However, he doesn’t explain why females, who receive a smaller share of family food, lived longer than males. & other diseases (measles) rose during the time of improved nutrition

  • Medical improvements

Before the 1950’s, there was limited medical devices & knowledge about human health

After the 1950’s, medical knowledge, techniques & organisations helped to reduce the death rates, e.g.

~ Introduction of anti-biotic’s

~ Immunisation from infections

~ Maternity services

~ NHS set up 1948

  • Smoking & diet

Harper - the greatest fall in death rates has come from the reduction of people smoking

~ In the past smoking was promoted - now endless research has demonstrated its negative impacts (association with cancers)

~ In the 21st century many claim that obesity is the new lifestyle epidemic

Harper - we may be moving to an American Health Culture where lifestyles are unhealthy but where a long lifespan is achieved by use of costly medication & surgery

  • Public health measures

In the 20th century, there has been a more effective gov with the power to pass laws that have led to a range of improvements in public health & the quality of the environment, e.g.

~ Improved social housing - drier, well-ventilated, less overcrowded

~ Cleaner drinking water & improved sewage disposal methods to promote hygiene & prevent illness

~ Clean air acts to reduce air pollution

~ Health & safety regulations at work to reduce dangerous jobs & work accidents

~ Better pay & higher living standards allow for a healthier lifestyle

Consequences

  • Increased life expectancy - over the past 2 centuries, life expectancy has increased by about 2 years per decade

  • Class, gender, & regional differences

~ Women generally live longer than men

~ People in the south live longer than those i the north

~ Working-class labouring men are 3x more likely to die before they are 65 compared to middle-class professional men

Aging population

Trends:

. 2023 - 19% of the population was aged 65 or over, compared to 14% in 1971

. By 2050, it’s predicted that 1 in 4 people in the UK will be aged 65 or over

Impacts

  • Increased dependency ratio - as people live longer but retire earlier, fewer people are contributing to the economy

E.g. 2021 - the UK’s dependency ratio was 56 dependents per 100 working age people (expected to rise to 66 by 2040)

~ Higher taxes may be needed to fund pensions, healthcare, & social care

~ Governments have increased the state pension age & encourage private pensions to reduce reliance on the state

  • Strain on public services

Elderly individuals account for a significant proportion of health & social care spending - over 45% of NHS spending goes towards them, despite them representing less than a fifth off the pop

  • Changing family structures

Rise of ‘beanpole families’ means families have more vertical generations but fewer siblings or cousins

The sandwich generation increases - middle aged adults caring for both children & aging parents → financial, emotional, time pressures

  • Housing

Many elderly people ‘under-occupy’ homes, often living in family sized houses with 1 or 2 occupants - 2023 - 54% of people aged 65+ lived in homes with at least 2 spare bedrooms

This limits availability for younger families & pushes up house prices

  • Economic opportunities

‘The silver economy’ - products/services aimed at older people is growing

By 2040, spending by people aged 65+ is expected to rise by 68% in the UK

  • Social isolation

Affects many elderly people, especially those living far from family - over 1.4 million older people in the UK report feeling lonely ‘often’ or ‘always’ - knock on affect on mental & physical health

Globalisation & migration

Migration - the movement of people from one place to another, either permanently or temporarily, for reasons such as work, education, escaping conflict

Globalisation - the increasing interconnectedness of the world through trade, technology, culture, & the movement of people

16% of the population were born outside of the UK

Impacts

  • Family life

Migration contributes to family diversity & introduces new family structures, e.g. British-Asian extended family & the Black-Caribbean single mother

However, migration often leads to family separation

  • Exploitation

Feminisation of migration - migrant women take up jobs in roles such as domestic work, caregiving, sex work - these roles reinforce traditional gender norms & patriarchal stereotypes onto poorer non-western women

Hochschild - this has led to a global transfer of domestic & emotional labour

Since many western women are now in paid work, western men reman reluctant to take on a fair share of domestic work, & the governments have not provided adequate childcare systems families are forced to rely on migrant women to fill the gap

  • Public services

Can put a strain on housing, healthcare, schools in terms of overcrowding

However:

~ Many migrants are of working age which lowers the dependency ratio

~ Often fill essential roles in industries such as healthcare, construction, agriculture - 16% of NHS staff are migrants

Migrants are vital in sustaining public services

~ Pay taxes - contribute to public funds for welfare, healthcare, education

  • Identity

Increases cultural diversity by bringing new languages, cuisines, religions, traditions (Diwali, Eid)

However, migrants may face challenges integrating into their host societies due to language barriers, cultural differences, discrimination - rise in Islamophobia

Theories view of migration

  • Feminism - highlights gender inequalities, the global transfer of emotional & domestic labour onto migrant women

  • Marxism - benefits capitalism by providing cheap labour while creating class divisions amongst the working class

  • Functionalism - functional for society - helps fill labour shortages & contributes to economic growth