John Locke

Human nature

In the state of nature, society served mankind's best interests reasonably well due to mankind being guided by rationalism, 'natural laws' and 'natural justice'

In the state of law, we improve upon the state of nature by resolving disputes between individuals more efficiently

State

The state is not part of God's creation (divine right of kings) therefore, ordinary people are not 'subjects' of the state

A legitimate state would be one created by mankind to serve mankind's interests and would only arise from the consent of those it would govern, respecting natural rights and natural laws to ensure that individuals are no worse off than they were in the state of nature

Due to the contractual nature of the state, the state would have to have limited government, have checks and balances, and always require the ongoing consent of the governed

Society

The size he predicts the state as there were natural societies with natural laws and natural rights

Economy

State policy should respect the natural rights to private property and arbitrate effectively between individuals competing for trade and resources

Mary Wollstonecraft

Human nature

Male and female individuals share a desire for self-fulfilment and self-determination

The state and society implied that women were not rational and therefore should be denied individual freedom and formal equality

State

Women could not vote for those who governed them - a blatant violation of government by consent

Republican government, formal equality (all individuals, not just men) and a constitution that protected individual rights

Society

Reason and progress do not prosper if you limit women's individualism

Women were complicit in their subjugation, desiring only marriage and motherhood; to correct this, formal education should be given to everyone to develop their rational faculties, recognise their potential and recognise the absurdity of illiberal doctrines

Economy

Women were rarely allowed land ownership or paid employment - this needs to change because a free-market economy would be energised by the enterprise of liberated women

John Stuart Mill

Human nature

Though rational, human nature is not fixed as it is forever progressing to a higher level

State

Human actions are divided into self-regarding and other-regarding - self-regarding actions, such as religious worship and the expression of personal views, do not restrict the freedom of others and should therefore be tolerated however, other-regarding actions, such as violent behaviour, clearly harm the freedom of others and should therefore be forbidden by a liberal state

The liberal principle of government by consent would be compromised if the interests of some liberal-minded individuals were denied by the votes of most (uneducated) voters therefore, Mill feared that a democratic state could lead to a tyranny of the majority

Society

Negative freedom - freedom mainly involves an absence of restraint - links to the harm principle

Liberty is not just a natural right but the engine of ongoing human development - liberty is a work in progress

Toleration of diverse opinions was especially important as it meant new ideas could emerge while allowing bad ideas to be openly ridiculed

Economy

Laissez-faire capitalism is vital to progress, individual enterprise and individual initiative

John Rawls

Human nature

Mankind is selfish yet empathetic, valuing both individual liberty and the plight of others

State

The state should enable less fortunate individuals to advance, via public spending and public services

Society

The peaceful, voluntary interaction of multiple individuals

Foundational equality does not just mean formal equality under the law and constitution but also greater social and economic equality

This is necessary to ensure a just society, where all lives can be fulfilled

When faced with the veil of ignorance, rational human beings would choose a society where the poorest members fared significantly better than in present society

While most individuals would choose to improve the lot of the poor, they would still want a society where the talented and enterprising were rewarded therefore, while the conditions of the poor should be improved by the state, the gap between the poorest and richest would not necessarily be narrowed, thus ensuring that this brand of liberalism remains distinct from socialism

Economy

Foundational equality could only be provided by a significant redistribution of wealth via an enabling state, extensive public spending and progressive taxation

Free-market capitalism should be tempered by the state's obligation to advance its poorest citizens

Betty Friedan

Human nature

Male and female individuals share a desire for self-fulfilment and self-determination

Female individuals were suppressed by the gender expectations of post-war America and that subsequently dehumanised these women in an insufficiently liberal society - rising levels of female depression and suicide were a result of the natural urge to feel happy and fulfilled was denied

State

The state should legislate to prevent continued discrimination against women

Society

The illiberal attitudes in society, rather than human nature, that condemned most women to underachievement; natural and transmitted via society’s various cultural channels, such as schools, organised religion, the media and mainstream literature, theatre and cinema

Channels of cultural conditioning left many women convinced that their lot in life was determined by iron laws rather than their rationality and enterprise

Disdained violence or illegality as a means of pursuing change as significant progress was possible via the procedures of a liberal state, therefore rejecting the Marxist-feminist argument that the state was dominated by patriarchal corporations, favouring liberal constitutionalism

Economy

Free-market capitalism could be an ally of female emancipation if allied to legislation precluding sexual discrimination