Struggles for Recognition: The Liberal International Order and the Merger of Its Discontents- Rebecca Adler-Nissen and Ayşe Zarakol

Thematic Study Notes: Challenges to the Liberal International Order (LIO)

1. The Liberal International Order as a Recognition Order

• The LIO is more than a political and economic structure—it is a recognition hierarchy, where states and populations seek status, respect, and identity within the global system.

• Core Grievance: Both the West (especially populist actors) and Russia feel marginalized or inadequately recognized in the current LIO structure.

• Discontent is rooted in perceived injustice within the hierarchy of recognition, rather than in pure economic or material grievances.

• Quotes:

  • "Dissatisfaction with the LIO as a recognition order." (p. 612)

  • "The discontented are frustrated with their perceived positions in the recognition hierarchy." (p. 612)

2. The Internal Hollowing of the LIO

• The LIO is not only under external pressure but is also being weakened from within, especially by those who once upheld it—Western powers.

• Disillusionment: Former proponents are now disenchanted due to unmet promises of equality, status, and recognition.

  Country	Reasons for Disillusionment	Key Events / Movements	Themes
  🇺🇸 United States	- Economic dislocation from globalization (loss of manufacturing)- Sovereignty concerns- Anti-globalist populism	- Trump’s "America First" (2016–2020)- Withdrawal from Paris Agreement, TPP- 2016 Election & Russian disinfo	- Populism- Anti-multilateralism- Recognition grievance
  🇬🇧 United Kingdom	- Sovereignty and immigration concerns- Distrust of EU institutions- Nationalist nostalgia	- Brexit referendum (2016)- Rise of UKIP, right-wing press influence	- Sovereigntism- Anti-elitism- Identity politics
  🇮🇹 Italy	- EU economic rules seen as limiting- Migration burden from Mediterranean routes- North–South EU resentment	- Rise of Five Star Movement and Lega- Budget conflicts with EU	- Economic nationalism- Anti-EU sentiment- Peripheral discontent
  🇫🇷 France	- Economic inequality- Elitist governance perceptions- Identity/cultural anxieties	- Gilets Jaunes (Yellow Vests) protests- Rise of National Rally (Le Pen)	- Recognition grievances- Anti-globalism- Populism
  🇩🇪 Germany (partial)	- Eastern regional discontent- Cultural backlash against immigration and EU regulation	- Growth of AfD (Alternative für Deutschland)- Anti-EU rhetoric in East Germany	- Cultural nationalism- Sovereignty anxieties- Populist right

• Institutional Fatigue: Enthusiasm for liberal norms has declined globally; fewer states are actively defending the order.

• Quotes:

  • "The LIO is thus being hollowed from within at a time when it is also facing some of its greatest challenges."(p. 611)

  • "Barriers between states have become even higher, and the LIO has few genuinely enthusiastic defenders left." (p. 612)

3. Populism as a Reaction to LIO’s Failures

• Populist Movements represent a reactionary force to the LIO's perceived elitism and failure to address recognition-based concerns.

• These movements create a positive social identity for “the real people” who feel unrecognized by liberal elites.

• Nature of Western Populism:

  • Rooted in nostalgia and vulnerability, not traditional left-right politics.

  • Focuses on anti-internationalism, seeing global institutions as alienating and disempowering.

• Quotes:

  • "The populist coping successfully mobilises such anxieties and grievances into a positive social identity centered on the idea of representing the 'real people' who are not adequately recognised by the liberal elite."(p. 618)

  • "Populism in the West is embedded in feelings of vulnerability and nostalgia that are increasingly expressed in the form of anti-internationalism rather than through traditional left/right party politics." (p. 619)

4. Divergent Experiences: Core vs Semi-Periphery

• The LIO failed to deliver evenly on its promises, producing uneven socio-economic outcomes between Western "core" and non-Western "semi-periphery."

• This inequality in outcome contributed to mistrust, alienation, and rejection of the system by emerging powers and disenfranchised populations.

• Quote:

  • "The semi-periphery and core had greatly varying experiences of the LIO because it failed to eradicate the socio-economic issues that it promised to erase between the West and Non-West." (p. 613)

5. Common Enemy: Russia and Western Populists

• Convergence of Interests: Despite differing systems, Russia and Western populists align in their rejection of the LIO.

• Both view the LIO as a barrier to national sovereignty, status, and authentic identity.

• Mutual Framing of the LIO as the enemy to true recognition.

• Quote:

  • "The LIO is agreed upon by both nations as the enemy to true recognition." (p. 613)

6. Information Warfare and Strategic Disruption

• The rise of digital disinformation has become a powerful tool for exploiting grievances and undermining trust in liberal institutions.

• Russia has leveraged this (e.g., 2016 US election propaganda) to amplify dissatisfaction and destabilize liberal democracies from within.

• Quotes:

  • "Digital disinformation, fake news, and information flooding tap into and give shape to the frustrations." (p. 623)

  • "This was taken advantage of by Russia who had their role in the 2016 US election propaganda." (p. 613)

7. Declining Legitimacy and an Uncertain Future

• The promise of global liberalism—once seen as inevitable at the end of the 20th century—has faltered.

• Quote:

  • "At the end of the last century, the prevailing conviction was that globalisation had guaranteed the triumph of Western-style democracies." (p. 611)

• Today, the LIO faces increasing rejection and is vulnerable to alternative models and ideological systemsemerging from both East and West.

• The future of the LIO is now uncertain, as it grapples with both external authoritarian pressure and internal populist backlash.

• Quote:

  • "The future of LIO looks shaky and uncertain and correlates with the rise of populism that constantly gleams alternatives." (p. 627)

Conclusion: Key Takeaways